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F force, a low-deformation fracture, b ductile fracture, c completely ductile fracture Stress-strain diagram F R p R e R m σ ε σ ε Δσ Δε A E = Δσ Δε!¡{( ¡{! 4(3 σ stress, ε strain, R p proportional limit, R e yield strength, m tensile strength, A elongation at fracture 1 Hooke’s straight line, 2 Lüders strain, 3 strain hardening
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