Software for Managing Complex Learning: Examples from an ...

1 Software for Complex LearningSep 2, 1998- 1 - Software for Managing Complex learning : Examples from an Educational Psychology L. Schwartz, Sean Brophy, Xiaodong Lin, & John D. BransfordLearning Technology CenterVanderbilt University 1999 Article of the Year Educational Technology Research and Development, 47, for Complex LearningSep 2, 1998- 2 -New developments in learning theory suggest that many teachers--the present authorsincluded--can improve student learning by changing their teaching practices ( , Cognition andTechnology Group at Vanderbilt [CTGV], 1996). As college teachers we often find that ourpredominant method of teaching is to assign chapter readings and then to give lectures anddemonstrations of points we think are important (see also, Nunn, 1996).

2 We assess learning byasking students to answer multiple choice questions, give presentations, or write essays thatparaphrase and elaborate on what they have learned. These methods of teaching and assessment work in the sense that most students can demonstrate that they have learned , the quality of their learning is often less than satisfying. Reading assignments andfollow-up lectures can produce evidence of learning that looks successful at first glance but missesmany elements of understanding when analyzed in more detail (Bransford & Schwartz, in press;Schwartz & Bransford, in press). Students, for example, often fail to spontaneously use what theyhave learned in a new setting despite the fact that it is highly relevant.

3 Whitehead (1929) referred tothe failure to apply learning as the inert knowledge problem. A number of studies show thattraditional approaches to instruction often produce inert knowledge ( , Bereiter & Scardamalia,1985; Bransford, Franks, Vye, & Sherwood, 1989; Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Perfetto, Bransford, &Franks, 1983).Instructional innovations such as problem- based , case- based and project - based learninghave been designed to combat the inert knowledge problem (for precise distinctions among theseapproaches see Barron et al., 1998; Williams, 1992). Instead of simply assigning fact-basedreadings or providing lectures, students begin their inquiry with challenging problems, and theylearn information relevant to those challenges as the need arises.

4 Instructional approaches that areorganized around cases, problems and projects have been used for a number of years inprofessional schools for training in medicine ( , Barrows, 1985), business ( Gragg, 1940),law ( Williams, 1992), and educational administration ( , Bridges & Hallinger, 1995). Theseapproaches to instruction are also being used with increasing frequency in K-12 education ( et. al, 1998; CTGV, 1992; 1997; Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, Bass, & Fredricks, 1998; Software for Complex LearningSep 2, 1998- 3 -Penner, Lehrer, & Schauble, 1998). Williams (1992) provides an excellent review of problem-basedand case- based learning . Data on the effectiveness of these approaches for student learning arediscussed in Barron et al.

5 (1998; see also, CTGV, 1997; Hmelo, 1998; Michael, Klee, Bransford, &Warren, 1993; Vye et al., 1998).There are risks associated with the use of case- based , problem- based and project -basedlearning. A major risk is that engagement can be mistaken for learning . For example, whencompleting a hands-on activity like building a model rocket, students may be active and enthused,yet assessments of the systematic understanding may yield disappointing results ( Examples arediscussed in Barron et al., 1998). Another risk comes from the assumption that these are constructivist activities, and they require teachers to eliminate traditional activities such asassigning fact- based readings or providing lectures.

6 Assumptions such as these fail to differentiateconstructivism as a theory of knowing from theories of pedagogy. Constructivist theories assumethat people always use their prior knowledge to construct new knowledge even if they are sittingthrough a lecture ( , 1994). Lectures are often not the best way to help novices learnbecause their knowledge is not sufficiently differentiated to understand a lecture at a deep , if students are given opportunities to develop well-differentiated knowledge, lectures canbe a powerful way to help students organize their knowledge and experiences (Schwartz &Bransford, in press). There are times for lectures and readings, but they need to occur whenstudents are prepared to appreciate the insights that they our experiences, case-, problem- and project - based learning are most effective whenteachers, students and other interested parties form " learning communities" where there is individualaccountability yet people collaborate in order to achieve important objectives, and where there isaccess to expertise that often lies outside the classroom community ( , Bransford et al.)

7 , in press).Frequent opportunities for formatively assessing individual and group progress are also importantfor helping students achieve ( , Barron et. al., 1998; Vye et. al., 1998). In this article we describe a Software shell, , that is designed to guideattempts to help students learn from case-, problem-, and project - based learning . for Complex LearningSep 2, 1998- 4 -supports the integration of four types of learning environments that we believe are especiallyimportant for enhancing learning (CTGV, in press): Learner centered environments that focus on knowledge, skills and attitudes that studentsbring to the learning situation. Knowledge centered environments that focus on knowledge that is organized around core concepts or big ideas that support subsequent learning in the disciplines ( CTGV,in press; Brown & Campione, 1994).

8 Assessment centered environments that help students thinking to become visible so thatboth they and their teachers can assess and revise their understanding. Community centered environments that capitalize on local settings to create a sense ofcollaboration --both among students and with other members of the these four types of environments requires what we call, Flexibly AdaptiveInstructional Design (Schwartz, Lin, Brophy, & Bransford, in press). As teachers use problem-, project -, or case- based materials, they need to tailor learning activities to the unique qualities of theirsettings while maintaining a focus on core disciplinary knowledge. To adapt a curriculum(knowledge-centered) to their setting, teachers need to work with the prior knowledge, skills, andcultural resources that a specific group of students brings to a situation.

9 To accomplish this,students need opportunities to bring their knowledge and beliefs to bear on school subjects(learner-centered), and teachers need frequent opportunities for assessing student progress towardknowledge standards (assessment-centered). And, because community is a powerful and variableproperty of learning settings, teachers should be given opportunities to maximize communityresources to motivate and enable collaboration and achievement (community-centered). promotes flexibly adaptive instructional design in two primary ways. Ithelps teachers adapt Complex curricula by including a model of inquiry that draws attention to eachof the learning environments within a single Software shell and that provides a framework formaking pedagogically sound modifications.

10 It supports flexibility by including a suite of softwaretools that are simple to learn and use, and that make it easy to modify a given for Complex LearningSep 2, 1998- 5 -Figure 1 provides an overview of the inquiry model. This figure is a screenshot of the Software s primary interface. The interface organizes student activity into typical phasesof inquiry and helps make their learning processes visible to themselves and the teacher. Byclicking on the different icons of the interface, the Software branches to the corresponding pages of resources and activities. These pages provide opportunities for students to completeprogressively Complex challenges (the Challenge mountains in Figure 1), to generate their ownideas on how to meet the challenges (Generate Ideas), to compare their ideas to others and reflect onthe differences (Multiple Perspectives), as well as develop, assess, and revise their understanding(Research & Revise, Test Your Mettle) before they present their final solutions to each challenge(Go Public).