E C O L O G I C A L S A N I T A T I O N

1 E C O L O G I CA L. S A N I TAT I O N. revised and enlarged edition Editors and co-authors Uno Winblad Mayling Simpson-H bert Co-authors 2004 revised edition Paul Calvert Peter Morgan Arno Rosemarin Ron Sawyer Jun Xiao Consultant for Chapter 6. Peter Ridderstolpe Co-authors 1998 edition Steven A Esrey Jean Gough Dave Rapaport Ron Sawyer Mayling Simpson-H bert Jorge Vargas Uno Winblad Stockholm Environment Institute 2004. Text Stockholm Environment Institute, 2004. Illustrations Uno Winblad, 2004. All rights reserved First published 1998. Second edition 2004. Published by Stockholm Environment Institute Box 2142, S-103 14 STOCKHOLM, Sweden Coordination Uno Winblad Illustrations by Cesar A orve ( ).

2 Harry Edstrom ( , ). Peter Morgan ( , ). Hans M rtensson ( , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). Kjell Torstensson ( , , , , ). Uno Winblad ( , + back cover photos). Layout by Uno Winblad Jun Xiao Cover design by Annie Winblad Jakubowski Cecilia Undemark Printed by Arket Officin AB, Stockholm, Sweden The document may be freely reviewed, abstracted, reproduced or translated, in part or in whole, but not for sale or for use in conjunction with commercial purposes. Please acknowledge the source of material taken from this document in the following way: Winblad U & Simpson-H bert M (editors): Ecological sanitation.

3 Revised and enlarged edition. SEI, Stockholm, Sweden, 2004. The document is the result of a Sida commissioned study but the views expressed in the document are solely the responsibility of the authors. ISBN 91 88714 98 5. II ECOLOGICAL SANITATION. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. Writing this book was a team effort and the team included a number of colleagues whose names do not appear on the title page. We are grateful to all friends and colleagues for their help. Special thanks are due to Ingvar Andersson and Bengt Johansson of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) for their support to the earlier SanRes R&D programme (1993 2001) and the current EcoSanRes programme (2002 ongoing).

4 A key role has been played by all those people in the field who are responsible for implementing ecological sanitation projects in urban and rural communities around the world. In addition to those listed in the first edition of the book we acknowledge our debt to Ms Li Ling- ling and Mr Lin Jiang in Guangxi Autonomous Region, China. Thanks to their spirited work and the support from the NPHCC and the Ministry of Public Health in Beijing a small pilot project for 70. households in Tianyang County in Guangxi, carried out in 1997 98. as part of the SanRes programme, has now spread to 685,000.

5 Households in 17 provinces. Thanks are also due to government and agency officials in other parts of the world for supporting and facilitating the development of eco- logical sanitation. In the first edition of the book we listed them. Since then there has been such a rapid development in a large number of countries that we can no longer provide a comprehensive list. Finally we wish to acknowledge the contribution made by Steve Esrey. He played an important role in the development of the con- cept of ecological sanitation and in the drafting of the first edition of this book. Those of us who were there will never forget his inspiring opening speech at the First International Conference on Ecological Sanitation in Nanning, China, in November 2001.

6 He was unable to come to Nanning due to the illness that a month later led to his death, but nontheless he prepared a wonderful, voiced powerpoint presen- tation for the opening session. The results of this very successful con- ference have been incorporated into this book. Stockholm and Addis Ababa July 2004. The Editors III. CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..III. FOREWORD ..VI. 1. INTRODUCTION ..1. Challenges ..1. Response ..4. Criteria ..6. This book .. 8. 2. SANITIZING HUMAN EXCRETA ..9. Urine ..9. Faeces ..11. What kills pathogens in faeces? ..12. Primary and secondary processing ..13.

7 Dehydration and composting ..15. Homestead vs urban systems ..19. Summary ..19. 3. ECO-SAN EXAMPLES ..21. Homesteads ..21. Dehydrating eco-toilets /21. Adaptations for washers' /29. Composting toilets /34. Soil composting sanitation systems /39. Municipal areas ..44. Double-vault dehydrating eco-toilets /44. Long-drop dehydrating /46. Small flush composting/biogas /49. 4. DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT FEATURES ..53. Factors influencing design and management ..54. Dealing with faeces ..54. Dehydration /54. Decomposition /55. Dealing with liquids ..57. Diverting urine /58. Mixing urine and faeces /61.

8 Water for anal cleaning /63. Preventing odours and flies ..63. Household vs communal removal and treatment ..64. Household management /64. Communal management /64. Other technical options ..65. Solar heaters /65. Single or double vault /66. Anal cleaning material /67. Absorbents and bulking agents /68. Ventilation and aeration /69. Materials and workmanship ..69. Maintenance ..69. 5. RECYCLING THE NUTRIENTS ..71. Why recycle nutrients? ..71. Food security and poverty alleviation /71. Cost savings to farmers /72. Preventing nitrogen pollution /73. Restoring lost topsoils /74. IV ECOLOGICAL SANITATION.

9 Nutrients in human excreta ..74. Urine /74. Faeces /75. Nutrients in combined systems /75. Application of nutrients derived from excreta ..76. Application of urine /76. Application of faeces /77. Application of humus from urine and faeces combined /77. Effects of nutrients on plant growth ..78. Effect of urine and faeces combined /80. Conclusions and recommendations on use of urine and faeces in 6. GREYWATER ..85. Introduction ..85. Greywater characteristics ..86. Water amounts /86. Biodegradable organic compounds /86. Pathogens /87. Nutrients /87. Heavy metals and other toxic pollutants /88.

10 Components in greywater management ..88. Control at source /89. Pipe systems /90. Pre-treatment /91. Treatment /92. End uses /97. 7. PLANNING, PROMOTION AND SUPPORT ..99. Cultural factors and facilitating change .. 100. The faecophilia faecophobia continuum /100. Participatory methods to facilitate change /101. Eco-san in urban areas ..102. Planning /102. Promotion, education and training /102. Institutions /104. Financial aspects /104. Codes and regulations /105. Eco-san in small towns and rural areas ..106. Planning /106. Promotion, education and training /106. Institutions /108. Financial aspects /109.