1.Culture

1 Language statusAdopt a heritageImpact of Geography on History1. Himalayas stood as a natural barrier to protect India against , the passes in the northwest mountains such as the Khyber, Bolan,Kurram and Gomal provided easy routes between India and CentralAsia. Apart from invading armies, missionaries and merchants came toIndia using these Nepal is also a small valley under the foot of the Himalayas and it isaccessible from Gangetic plains through a number of passes. Themountains of northeast India is difficult to cross and many parts of thisregion had remained in relative isolation. 3. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Son river withthe Ganges. In the ancient period Pataliputra had remained the capitalfor the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas and other kingdoms. Being on theconfluence of so many streams it was an important political andcommercial centre. Pataliputra was also a centre of scientific , who was a resident of Pataliputra, observed in 498 AD thatEarth revolves on its own axis and around the Sun.

2 4. Deccan plateau consists of volcanic rock, which is different from thenorthern mountains. As these rocks are easier to cut into, we find anumber of rock-cut monasteries and temples in the The Deccan plateau acted as a bridge between the north and southIndia. However, the dense forests in the Vindhya Mountains makes thisregion isolated from the north. The language and culture in the southernpeninsula are preserved in tact for a long time due to this As the southern peninsula is gifted with a long coastline. A great deal oftrade and commerce went on through the seaways. Apart from trade,they spread Indian art, religion and culture in these parts of the commercial contacts between south India and the Greco-Romancountries flourished along with cultural Inspite of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of thecountry to another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joinedtogether through conquests or by alliance.

3 As a result, peopletransmitted cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the country tothe other. Military campaigns too took people from one place This helped in exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led to thedevelopment of commonness in Indian culture, which has beenmaintained throughout our history. Another unifying factor is geographical diversity and climatic variations India experiencesan inherent unity. Foreign book for Studying Indian history1. To India came the Greek, Roman and Chinese visitors, either astravellers or religious converts, and they left behind account of thingsthat they saw. 2. Alexander invasion of India find no mention in Indian sources, and it isentirely on basis of Greek sources we have to construct the history ofhis Indian exploits. 3. Some Greek sources mention Chandragupta Maurya which help fixinghis date of accession at 322 BC. This helps as sheet-anchor in AncientIndian Chronology.

4 4. Fragments of Indica, written by Megasthenes, provide valuableinformation on Maurya administration, social classes and economicactivities. The existence of a list of 153 kings whose reigns had covereda period of about 6053 years up till then. 5. Many Greek and Roman sources of 1 AD mention many Indian portsand enumerate items of trade between Indian and Roman empires. Theptolemy s geography provide valuable data for studying Fahien describes social, religious and economic conditions in the age ofGuptas, and Hiuen-Tsang presents similar account during age ofHarsha. 7. Limitations1. Indica is not free from exaggerations. Megasthenes had littleunderstanding of Indian society and social systems. For example,he mentions that Indian society comprised of seven Most of the Greek writings are based on secondary sourcesresulting in errors and Except for Megasthenes all others have touched history They were ignorant of the language and the customs of thecountry and their information is full of unbelievable facts The works of Megasthenes and other Greeks of those whoaccompanied Alexander, have been lost and are available only infragments as quoted in later Fahien and Hiuen-Tsang have given somewhat exaggeratedaccount of Buddhism during the period of their visit.

5 For exampleHiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in hisepigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi-religiouspeople, it is not difficult for a foreigner to be in reconstruction of historyIndus valley civilisation1. Grid system: Roads were well cut dividing the town into largerectangular blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence ofstreet lightning. The citadel of harappan provides ingredients to themodern day social Burnt bricks: Elsewhere in contemporary world, mud-bricks wereused. Houses were monotonous - a square courtyard, around whichwere a number of rooms were built. 3. Drainage system: The drains connecting from all the houses areconnected to a near by central drain. Drains were made up of mortar,lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy shows developed sense of health and sanitation.

6 4. Agriculture: First to produce cotton. Domesticated cattle, dogs andcats. 5. Commerce: Barter system. Weights and measures (16 was unit ofmeasure). Bead making existed in Chanhaduro. The trade of lapislazuli, cotton and other export and import commodities withMesopotamia, Sumerian is origin of modern day commerce. Theirusage of seals and stamps on traded objects to protect them fromtampering also shows present day s encryption technique. 6. Arts and crafts: Bronze age. Potter's wheel. Seal engravings,especially those with animals. Red Torso is impressive for its image of famous dancing girl. 7. Religious life: No temples are found. Idolatry practised. PashupatiShiva, Mother Goddesses and Priest king . Phallus (lingam) and Yoniworship. Great bath at Mohenjodaro. Seals having ritual scenes. One-horned rhinoceros -- unicorn. Fire altars at lothal and , stones and animals were worshipped. Overall a secular way oflife.

7 8. Evidence of authority: Uniformity in artefacts -- seals, weights andbricks. Settlements in strategic locations. Labour was mobilised. "PriestKing" figure. Presence of citadel. Planned settlements. 9. Clustered buildings: The workers building of Harappa resembles tocoolie lines of modern day tea estates in Importance of water and sanity: The strong belief of sanctity of waterby Harappan s resembles to the belief of south Indians who keep watertank in temples is a cultural input to modern day civilisation as southIndian temples are centre of urbanized Use of Carpentry, pottery: The use of these elements in harappancivilisation gives similarity to modern day use of decoration, amulet, Burials: Recently discovered Brick-lined burials (as opposed to plainpits) in Rakhigarhi were among the most elaborately constructedgraves, and possibly implied a high social or ritual status. Rig-vedic society1.

8 Family: Foundation of social life was family. Eldest member known asGrihapati exercised full authority. Thus family was patriarchal butwomen were not Women: No purdah. No child marriage. Freedom in choosing theirhusbands. Re-marraige. 3. Varna system: Divided into four varnas. But discriminatory castesystem did not exist. 4. Economic life: Pastoralists. Agriculture was secondary system. Nishka coins. Anybody can choose any profession. 5. Political life: Aryans lived in Tribes called Jana. Kingship was nothereditary. king was elected by the members of Jana. Women were partof sabha. Sabhas worked on democratic lines. No regular taxationsystem. Voluntary tributes. No evidence of bureaucracy and standingarmy. 6. Religious life: Material happiness. Polytheistic. Priestly class wasabsent. Later-Vedic society1. Society: The Brahmans though continued to be respected in the societyhad now lost much of their control on the power of the state.

9 All poweris concentrated in the hands of Kshatriyas. The centre of gravity wasking not Women: Slowly lost their equal position. Not allowed to take part inpolitical life. Excluded from inheriting property. Practises like Sati,child marriage, Purdah system crept into Varna: More rigid. More or less hereditary. 4. Economic life: Agriculture became the chief occupation. Barley, wheat,rice and few grains and beans began to be cultivated. Trade waspractised. Guild system. The cow as a unit of value was graduallyreplaced. Many cities have sprung up. 5. Political life: Vast empires and Royal power. Monarchy and bureaucracy. Regular army. 6. Religious life: Rituals became prominent. Cult of sacrifice. Towardsthe end of the period, there was strong resistance against the sacrificialpractises and rituals. Many sects like Ajivikas, Buddhism, Jainism, etcarose. Sixth century BCE1. Mahajanapadas: Evolution of Mahajanapadas comparable to presentday cities was a welcome change given the fact that cities declined withthe end of Harappan civilisation.

10 Cities like Magadha, Kosala were amajor centre of trade, arts, craft etc. 2. Religious ideas: Jainism and Buddhism evolved as an opposition to theHinduism which created a social division in the society. People found anew vent to get out of the clutches of caste Agricultural developments: Prominent use of iron ploughs andimplements brought about a overhaul by increasing agriculturalproduction. Construction of lakes, canals for irrigation purposes alsoincreased agricultural Literary development: India got its share of rich literature with thecompilation of Mahabharata, Ramayana, Jatakas, Vedas, Upanishads, Currency: Enhancement of trade was ushered in by minting coinsmade of gold and Specialised craft: The existence of different crafts shows thespecialisation of craft headed by guild. For example, Buddhist workrefers to 18 guilds in rajagriha like needle making, gold smithery,carpentry, Ivory Cultural dominance: Gangetic valley originates as a region of culturaldominance in this On the whole, 6th century India is worth analysing for the subsequentrepercussions that shaped the life of the people back then.