Transcription of Artificial Intelligence - vulms.vu.edu.pk
1 Artificial Intelligence By Dr Zafar. M. Alvi Artificial Intelligence (CS607) Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 2 Table of Contents: 1 What is Intelligence ?..4 Intelligent Formal Definitions for Artificial History and Evolution of Artificial Applications .. 13 Summary.
2 14 2 Problem Solving .. 15 Classical 15 Generate and 15 Problem 16 Components of Problem 17 The Two-One 18 21 Tree and Graphs 21 Search Strategies .. 23 Simple Search Algorithm .. 24 Simple Search Algorithm Applied to Depth First 25 Simple Search Algorithm Applied to Breadth First 28 Problems with DFS and 32 Progressive 32 Heuristically Informed Searches .. 37 Hill 39 Beam 43 Best First 45 Optimal 47 Branch and 48 Improvements in Branch and 55 A* 56 Adversarial Search.
3 62 Minimax Procedure .. 63 Alpha Beta Pruning .. 64 Summary .. 71 72 3 Genetic 76 Discussion on Problem 76 Hill Climbing in Parallel .. 76 Comment on 77 Genetic 77 Basic Genetic Algorithm .. 77 Solution to a Few Problems using GA .. 77 Eight Queens 82 88 4 Knowledge Representation and 89 The AI Cycle .. 89 The 90 Knowledge and its 90 Towards Representation .. 91 Formal KR 93 Facts .. 94 95 Semantic networks .. 97 98 98 102 Types of reasoning.
4 102 5 Expert Systems .. 111 Artificial Intelligence (CS607) Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3 What is an Expert? .. 111 What is an expert system? .. 111 History and Evolution .. 111 Comparison of a human expert and an expert 112 Roles of an expert 113 How are expert systems used?.. 114 Expert system structure .. 115 Characteristics of expert systems .. 121 Programming vs. knowledge engineering .. 122 People involved in an expert system project .. 122 Inference mechanisms.
5 123 Design of expert 129 6 Handling uncertainty with fuzzy systems .. 145 Introduction .. 145 Classical sets .. 145 Fuzzy sets .. 146 Fuzzy 147 Fuzzy inference system .. 153 Summary .. 158 Exercise .. 158 7 Introduction to 159 Motivation .. 159 What is learning ?.. 159 What is machine learning ? .. 160 Why do we want machine learning .. 160 What are the three phases in machine learning?.. 160 Learning techniques available .. 162 How is it different from the AI we've studied so far?
6 163 Applied 163 LEARNING: 165 Problem and problem 165 Concept learning as search .. 171 Decision trees learning .. 176 LEARNING: Connectionist .. 181 Biological aspects and structure of a neuron .. 181 Single 182 Linearly separable 184 Multiple layers of 186 Artificial Neural Networks: supervised and 187 Basic terminologies .. 187 Design phases of 188 Supervised .. 190 190 Exercise .. 192 8 Planning .. 195 Motivation.
7 195 Definition of 196 Planning vs. problem solving .. 197 Planning language .. 197 The partial-order planning algorithm POP .. 198 POP Example .. 199 202 9 Advanced Topics .. 203 Computer vision .. 203 204 Clustering .. 205 10 Conclusion .. 206 Artificial Intelligence (CS607) Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 4 Artificial Intelligence 1 Introduction This booklet is organized as chapters that elaborate on various concepts of Artificial Intelligence .
8 The field itself is an emerging area of computer sciences and a lot of work is underway in order to mature the concepts of this field. In this booklet we will however try to envelop some important aspects and basic concepts which will help the reader to get an insight into the type of topics that Artificial Intelligence deals with. We have used the name of the field Artificial Intelligence (commonly referred as AI) without any explanation of the name itself. Let us now look into a simple but comprehensive way to define the field.
9 To define AI, let us first try to understand that what is Intelligence ? What is Intelligence ? If you were asked a simple question; how can we define Intelligence ? many of you would exactly know what it is but most of you won t exactly be able to define it. Is it something tangible? We all know that it does exist but what actually it is. Some of us will attribute Intelligence to living beings and would be of the view that all living species are intelligent. But how about these plants and tress, they are living species but are they also intelligent?
10 So can we say that Intelligence is a trait of some living species? Let us try to understand the phenomena of Intelligence by using a few examples. Consider the following image where a mouse is trying to search a maze in order to find its way from the bottom left to the piece of cheese in the top right corner of the image. This problem can be considered as a common real life problem which we deal with many times in our life, finding a path, may be to a university, to a friends house, to a market, or in this case to the piece of cheese.
