Chapter 1 - Introduction - ILA - International Lead ...

1 LEADthe factsINFORMATION ON AUTHORSP rofessor Iain ThorntonIain Thornton, PhD, DSc, is Professor of Environmental Geochemistry atImperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London. He has overthirty years of research experience in environmental geochemistry andgeochemical mapping, the chemistry and behaviour of trace elements and metalsin soils and waters, and the effects of metal exposure on plant, animal and humanhealth. He is the editor of the standard text Applied EnvironmentalGeochemistry and has published widely on sources and pathways of metals inthe environment and their impacts. He is an elected Member of the NorwegianAcademy of Science and Letters and a Fellow of the Geological Society ofLondon.

2 He was President of the Society for Environmental Geochemistry andHealth from 1985 to1987. Dr Radu RautiuRadu Rautiu, PhD, MSc, BEng(Hons), is Projects Manager for IC ConsultantsLondon. An MSc and BEng in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, he hasa PhD in Separation Processes and Environmental Applications from ImperialCollege London. He has post-doctoral experience in best environmental andindustrial practice, environmental impacts and pollution control of heavy Margaret BrushSusan Margaret Brush has a BEng(Hons) Science and Engineering of Metals andMaterials from the University of Sheffield and an MSc in EnvironmentalTechnology at Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, byIC Consultants LtdLondon, UKDecember 2001 AuthorsIain Thornton, Radu Rautiu, Susan BrushAcknowledgementsThe following persons are acknowledged for their help in preparing this book:George Kazantzis, Madeleine McMullen, Paul Docx, Thomas KeeganLEADthe factsISBN.

3 0-9542496-0-7 Printed on 100% recycled paperTypeset by RSB, St Johns, Woking, SurreyPrinted and bound in England by Ian Allan Printing Ltd, Hersham, Surrey KT12 4 RGCONTENTS1 INTRODUCTION12 properties OF Physical General Attenuation of X-rays and gamma Resistance to irradiation by thermal Attenuation of Mechanical Tensile Creep Final Chemical Extraction of lead from its Corrosion of properties of some compounds of lead123 APPLICATIONS OF Historical Specific uses of lead Lead-acid General constructional uses of lead sheet and Sheathing for electrical Radiation Lead shot, weights and miscellaneous Uses of alloys containing Tin-lead Leaded bronzes.

4 Steels and aluminium Leaded glasses and Lead crystal and optical Radiation shielding glass, cathode ray tubes,fluorescent tubes and electrical Ceramic glazes and Electrical Leaded pigments and PVC Petrol additives 444 LEAD INDUSTRY PROFILE The technology of lead Production of lead mineral from Primary Production of metallic lead Lead Secondary Secondary Secondary Lead production, trade and consumption: current statusand Lead Production from Total production of refined Secondary World trade in Trade in lead Trade in lead Lead Lead Global consumption of lead consumption in Western Breakdown of end uses of lead Economic value of lead production and Lead-consuming Employment in the lead and related industries65 CONTENTS5 RECYCLING OF Recycling Recycling of major lead Lead-acid Lead sheet, piping, cable End-of-life Electrical and electronic Cathode ray National policies and collecting Future opportunities796 SOURCES.

5 LEVELS AND MOVEMENTS of lead IN Natural occurrences and concentrations of lead Lithosphere / Anthropogenic sources of Production of Mining Smelting Refining and other Manufacture of lead and lead-containing products Uses of lead Compounds of End-of-life and disposal of lead and Directly dispersive applications: petrol, Items remaining in-situ after use: lead shot,weights, cable sheathing. Items disposed of in the normal waste Losses from recycling of lead and Other anthropogenic sources of lead in the Chemical speciation of fluxes, transportation and fates of lead in the Transport by Transport in Movement in Uptake of lead in biota / bioaccumulation109 CONTENTS7 LEAD EXPOSURE TO HUMANS AND OTHER Pathways to the biosphere and Lead in Lead in Lead in soil and Lead in Estimates of total lead absorbed by humans (adults andchildren)

6 From air, dust, food and Environmental effects and Health effects on Historical accounts of Absorption of Fate of lead in the human Measures of lead Health effects of lead Effects of lead exposure on mental developmentand Other effects of lead Lead Extent of lead exposure in the general The general population (non-occupational exposure) Exposure of individuals occupationally exposed to Trends and health Policy approaches to lead1408 INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS AND Industrial Sources of Quantities of Nature of lead Impacts of industrial Control Historical Measures to control losses of lead to the Choice of Additional measures to protect the health of Examples of the current state of emissions by industry1559 IS LEAD A SUSTAINABLE COMMODITY?

7 159 References165 Annex Historical production and uses of lead1771 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTIONLead is one of man s most valuable commodities. Occurring naturally in theenvironment, the metal is mined and processed in some 60 countries. The usagecontinues to increase and has risen from 4 million tonnes per year worldwide inthe 1960s to 6 million tonnes in the 1990s. Of this, nearly 2 million tonnes peryear is produced in Europe. Secondary production or recycling is now widelypractised and currently accounts for some 70 per cent of usage has some important properties , in particular malleability ( it can behammered into shape), ease of production, ease of melting and joining, and goodcorrosion resistance in most common environments.

8 As a result, it has been usedfor purposes such as roofing, window cames, piping, kitchen/tableware andornamental uses for many centuries. Its high density has proved effective forweights and anchors for fishing lines, boats, and later for munitions. Thisproperty is now utilised in lead radiation screening and soundproofing. Theelectrochemical properties of lead enable it to be used in storage batteries in allmotor vehicles, and for some back-up power supplies. Certain compounds oflead, particularly brightly coloured lead oxides, and leaded glasses and leadedglazes on ceramics, have been used for millennia. The use of most leaded paintshas recently been phased out, but lead is still an important addition to someglasses and glazes.

9 However, it has been known since ancient times that exposure to lead can haveserious consequences for health. Accounts of symptoms consistent with chroniclead (and other metal) poisoning dating from the Roman period have been found,and there is evidence that many, in particular the nobility at the time, sufferedfrom high exposure to lead. Up until recent decades, many workers suffered leadpoisoning from exposure in the workplace. Today, it is known that exposure to lead can cause adverse effects on manyparts of the body. The organs potentially most affected are the brain and nervoussystem, kidneys, blood, and the reproductive system of both sexes. Lead incertain forms is also considered a possible carcinogen.

10 Of particular concern isthat relatively low levels can affect the developing foetus and young children,impairing their mental development and causing a small but measurable decreasein IQ. However, clinical symptoms are only found in very highly exposed2 LEAD: THE FACTS individuals (who are usually exposed at work) and this is now extremely rare inthe Western World. Although mining, processing, manufacturing and the use of lead -containingproducts, together with recycling and waste disposal will continue to give rise tosmall emissions and losses to the environment, responsible action by industrycoupled with the development and implementation of appropriate environmentalregulations, designed to protect both human health and the ecosystem, keep theselosses to a minimum.