Effective Learning Systems

1 TWOE ffective Learning SystemsnINSTRUCTIONAL GOALSUpon completion of this chapter and the nurse educator Learning experiences,the learner will be able to:nCritique Learning objectives using Bloom s taxonomynApply Mager s instructional objectives theory to written examplesnDemonstrate Gagne s nine instructional eventsnApply Bandura s cognitive Learning theorynWrite a definition of a Learning systemnDevise written evaluation proceduresnDemonstrate sequencing of Learning contentnChoose active Learning teaching methods from a list of strategiesnDiscuss Learning system problems with a group of learnersnList essential aspects of Learning contractsnVerbalize the difference between a curriculum and a Learning 5/9/07 1:48 PM Page 81 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONUpon completion of this chapter, the more advanced nurse educator will be able to:nModel a procedure for classmates or nursing learners and use Bandura s socialcognitive principles to evaluate her performance and identify teaching orresearch implicationsnDevise a table comparing Gagne s conditions of instruction with Bloom s tax-onomy and give examples of each that are pertinent to teaching nurse learnersnTeach three novice nurse educators how to construct behavioral objectivesusing Bloom s taxonomy and Mager s goal theorynBuild a curriculum for a nursing program starting with the course objec-tives and content by level and matching them to school, college.

2 Or pro-gram goalsnDesign a research problem statement with motivation of learners as the themeCHAPTER TWO Effective Learning Systems82 Key TermsAffective Learning domainLearning systemsBandura s social cognitive theoryLesson plansBehavioral objectivesMotivationCognitive domainPost-testCriterion-referenced gradingPretestsCurriculumPreview methodDeductive learningProblem solvingDiscovery methodProductive & reproductive learningDisputation methodPromptsEducator/learner contractPsychomotor domainEvidence-based learningPurpose of instructionFidelityReliabilityGeneration X & Y learnersTaxonomyInductive 5/9/07 1:48 PM Page 82 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONI ntroductionLearning occurs when Effective Learning Systems are in place. This chapter providestheory and specific ideas to help nurse educators design, implement, and evaluateeffective Learning Systems and shows how Learning Systems relate to a nursing cur-riculum and Learning objectives.

3 Specific topics covered include: formulating learningobjectives based on Bloom s taxonomy, using Gagne s conditions of Learning theoryto insure Effective Learning , examining examples of Bandura s cognitive learningand self-efficacy theory, considering Mager s goal theory, sequencing content, timingthe presentation of material, dealing with environmental restraints, identifying andchanging ineffective Learning Systems , developing Learning contracts, evaluatinglearning, and aspects of evidence-based Effective Learning SystemsDesigning effectivelearning Systems requires knowledge of Learning , Learning theory, Learning Systems ,and the learner. It also includes skills in writing behavioral objec-tives and Learning contracts, and building a curriculum. A beginning question fornurse educators who hope to develop Effective Learning Systems is, What kinds oflearning are there? There are four basic types of Learning Systems , which and and inductive cognitive and Error LearningThe least efficient way to learn is through trial and error Learning , trying one approachand then another, with no guiding theory or principles.

4 This is like reinventing thewheel every time the learner wants to LearningGiving a definition and following it with examples isthe deductive approach to Learning . An example ofdeductive Learning is giving a definition of anxietyand then following it up with examples of Effective Learning Systems83 Deductive Learning includesgiving a definition first andthen providing 5/9/07 1:48 PM Page 83 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONI nductive LearningThe opposite process to deductive Learning is inductive Learning . Giving examplesof a concept and then following it with a definition or assisting learners to formulatethe definition is the inductive approach. When learnersare asked to discover the definition, the discoverymethodof Learning is used, a type of inductivelearning. When using this approach, it is imperativethat examples of a concept are clear and demonstrateonly one characteristic difference.

5 It is also useful toprovide examples of situations that do not fit the con-cept (nonexamples). Examples and nonexamples mustbe plentiful, and the instructor must be vigilant solearners do not formulate the wrong definition. Tomonitor movements toward a wrong definition, pro-vide counterexamples. For example, a learner mightmake the false discovery that crises are unexpectedevents if no examples of developmental crises are addition to examples and nonexamples being presented to learners, previewand advanced practice can be used to assure concept Learning . When using thepreviewmethod,learners are given time to inspect materials or equipment, to read related arti-cles, to view films, or to participate in a mini-exerciseor simulation that depicts the concept. All previewmaterials should underline the important aspects of theexamples in order to focus the learners attention onthese. Once learners are able to discriminate betweensimple examples and nonexamples, more complexexamples are used, with properties that are not easilyidentified and with many properties included in the definition.

6 Examples may differ onmore than one property, and there should be no prompts or cues to the learner to attendto aspects of the examples (Diamond, 1998; Davis, 1974).Social Cognitive LearningBandura (1977, 1986, 1997, 2001) developed a social cognitive theorythat hasbeen widely used and accepted (Graham & Weiner, 1996). Bandura wrote that indi-CHAPTER TWO Effective Learning Systems84 Inductive Learning includesgiving examples of aconcept and then followingit with a discovery method oflearning includes askinglearners to discover thedefinition by beingpresented with examplesand nonexamples of a the preview method,learners inspect materialsor equipment, andparticipate in mini-exercises or simulationsthat depict the 5/9/07 1:48 PM Page 84 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION viduals possess self-beliefs that can enable them to exercise control over theirthoughts, feelings, and , or the belief in one s ability to perform adequately, has proven tobe a more consistent predictor of behavioral outcomes than other motivational con-structs (Graham & Weiner, 1996).

7 Learners with high self-efficacy expect highergrades and put forth the effort to get them. They approach difficult tasks as chal-lenges rather than as situations to be avoided. Certain environmental characteristicscan result in even highly self-efficacious and well-skilled learners choosing not tobehave in concert with their beliefs and abilities if they:nLack the incentivenLack the necessary resourcesnPerceive social constraintsBandura wrote that Learning would be laborious and hazardous if learners hadto rely on only themselves (1977). Luckily, learners have educators to model appro-priate behavior for them. This vicarious Learning permits individuals to learn novelbehaviors without going through the arduous task of trial and error emphasized the importance of modeling behaviors, attitudes, and emo-tional reactions (1977). He believed that it was the human capability to symbolize thatallowed learners to:nExtract meaning from the environmentnConstruct guides for actionnSolve problems cognitivelynSupport well thought-out courses of actionnGain new knowledge by reflective thoughtnCommunicate with others at any distance in time and spacenUse self-reflection to make sense of their experiences, andnEngage in self-evaluation and alter their thinking and behavior accordingly(Bandura, 1986).

8 NNurse Educator ChallengeBased on what you know about Bandura s theory, what is the role of the edu-cator in relation to learners?Designing Effective Learning 5/9/07 1:48 PM Page 85 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONS ocial Cognitive Theory PrinciplesPrinciples of Bandura s theory highest level of observation Learning is achieved by first organizing andrehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it modeled behavior into words, labels, or images results in better reten-tion of information than does simply are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomesthey value, if the role model has admired status, and if the behavior has func-tional Self-efficacy beliefs are paramount; level of motivation, affective states, andactions are based more onwhat learners believe than on what is objectively , a seasoned nurse educator, had been using Bandura s social learningtheory for many years.

9 Just recently, he d been experimenting with several of theprinciples from Bandura s theory. Jason set up a role playing situation he wantedto use in class. He planned to ask participants to wear signs around their necksindicating the main concept they were of Bandura s Social Cognitive TheoryThe implications of Bandura s social cognitive theory are that nurse educators takecare to role model positive behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions whenteaching learners. Nurse educators must also provide a Learning environment thatallows learners to extract meaning from it and use social persuasion based on attain-able success to help learners create and develop high self-efficacy beliefs. Otherimplications of Bandura s social cognitive theory are that nurse educators mustremove real or imagined social or resource constraints to increase incentives to pro-duce competent performances, help learners use self-reflection and self-evaluationto alter their thinking and behavior toward high self-efficacy, and provide learningincentives and adequate resources, as well as remove social , a seasoned nurse educator, planned to role model the most Effective wayto obtain an intake interview, allow learners to practice small segments of theinterview process, and ask them to evaluate their Learning experience in a Educator ChallengeWhich of Bandura s principles was Jason demonstrating?

10 CHAPTER TWO Effective Learning 5/9/07 1:48 PM Page 86 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONL earning SystemsAlearning systemis an interdependent combinationof people, media, and materials that interact toachieve a goal. In the Systems approach to instruc-tion,the teaching/ Learning process is planned to facil-itate Learning . A specific methodology is used todesign, implement, and evaluate the teaching/learningprocess. This methodology is directed at achievingspecified objectives and is based on research in human Learning and communication(Diamond, 1998; Davis, 1993).Alexander, a new nurse educator, wasn t sure what kind of teaching/ learningactivity to plan for his first classroom experience. After planning first a role playingsituation and then a case study, he finally decided to keep it simple. He askedthe learners to read an article and report back on their minimum requirements for a Learning system consist of:nA learnernA Learning goalnA procedure for achieving the goalBy this definition, self-paced or individualized materials, programmed instruc-tional materials, and small-group exercises used by learners according to specifiedinstructions are Learning Systems .