Gamma-Ray Detectors

1 3 gamma -RayDetectorsHastingsASmith,Jr., , , , ,eitherdirectly(aswithaproportionalcount erorasolid-statesemiconductordetector)or indirectly(aswithascintillationdetector) , ,wewillpresentsomegeneralinformationonty pesof gamma -raydetectorsthatareusedinnondestru ctiveassay(NDA) , , ( )Inmostdesignstheouterelectrodeisthecyli ndricalwallofthegaspressurevessel,andthe inner(positive) (especiallyofionizationchambers) . 4 l%escintillationandsolid-statedetectorsa remuchmoredesirableforobtainingthe~spect roscopicdetailneededintheenergyrangetypi calofuraniumandplutoniumradiation(approx imately100-1000keV).

2 GascountersaredescribedinmoredetailinCha pter13,sincetheyaremorewidelyusedforneut rondetection. - - - * ~teCtO~Thesensitivevolumeofascintillatio ndetectorisaluminescentmaterial(asolid,l iquid,orgas)thatisviewedbyadevicethatdet ectsthegamma-ray-inducedlightemissions[u suallyaphotomultipliertube(PMT)].Thescin tillationmaterialmaybeorganicorinorganic ; ,plastics, (thestandardagainstwhichotherscintillato rsarecompared).Somecommoninor-ganicscint illationmaterialsaresodiumiodide(NaI),ce siumiodide(CSI),zincsulfide(ZnS),andlith iumiodide(LiI).Themostcommonscintillatio ndetectorsaresolid, ,bismuthgermanate(BiqGesOl2),commonlyref erredtoasBGO,hasbecomepopularinapplicati onswhereitshighgammacountingefficiencyan d/oritslowerneutronsensitivityoutweighco nsiderationsofenergyresolution(Refs.)

3 3and4). ,2, ,ionized(excited)atomsinthescintillatorm aterial relax , ,the (calledactivators) [NaI(Tl)].Thescintillationlightisemitted isotropically;sothescintillatoristypical lysur-roundedwithreflectivematerial(such asMgO)tominimizethelossoflightandtheniso pticallycoupledtothephotocathodeofaPMT.( )Scintillationpho-tonsincidentonthephoto cathodeliberateelectronsthroughthephotoe lectriceffect, ,theycollidewithelectrodesinthetube(know nasdynodes) ,causingalargemultiplication(byafactorof 104ormore)oftheelectronfluxfromitsinitia lvalueatthe gamma -RayDetectors47 SOLID-STATECRYSTALSIGNAL,-1*.

4 /.:,;.~.:~nDEPLETED(SENSITIVE)REGION~c ::: ~::: ::R$,..,,:,,.:.pHIGH:VOLTAGE+~ (seeChapter4).(a)(b)(c) :(a)open-endedcylindricalortruecoaxial,( b)closed-endedcylindrical,and(c) , (theso-calledtruecoaxial)orclosed-endedc rystals[ (a-b) ,Jr.,andMarciaLucastheelectricfieldforch argecollectionisprimarilyradial, ,theradialeiectricfieldgeometrymakesthec oaxial(especiallytheopen-endedcoaxial) [forexample, (c)]. ,withthesmallthicknessesoptimumforlow-en ergymeasurements(forexampleintheL-x-rayr egionforspecialnuclearmaterial).Planarde tectorsusuallyachievethebestenergyresolu tion,becauseoftheirlowcapacitance;theyar epreferredfordetailedspectroscopy, , ,inenvironmentswhereneutronlevelsarehigh (suchasaccelerators,reactors,orin-strume ntswithintenseneutronsources), ,radiationdamageeffectscanbeofconcerninN DAapplicationswherelargeamountsofnuclear materialarecontinuouslymeasuredwithhigh- resolution, gamma -rayspectroscopyequipmen t forexample, ,reducestheamplitudesofsomefull-energypu lses, ,theresolutionisdegraded, ( ).]

5 Ithasbeengenerallyobservedthatsignifican tperformancedegradationbeginswithaneutro nfluenceofapproximately109n/cm2,anddetec torsbecomeunusableatafluenceofapproximat ely1010n/cm2( ).However, ~iirming(annealing)thedetectorcrystal( ). ,2, ,thereverse-bias-diodeconfigurationofage rmaniumsolid-statedetectorresultsinveryl owcurrentsinthedetector(usuallyinthepico -tonanoampererange).Thisleakagecurrentca nbefurtherreducedfromitsroom-temperature valuebycryogeniccoolingofsolid-statemedi um,typicallytoliquidnitrogentemperature( 77K).Thiscoolingreducesthenatural,therma llygeneratedelectricalnoiseinthecrystalb utconstitutesthemaindisadvantageofsuchde tectors:thedetectorpackagemustincludecap acityforcooling,andthisusuallyinvolvesad ewarforcontainingtheliquidcoolant.

6 Inrecentyears,attemptshavebeenmade- gamma -RayDetectors491I,~n= ,! <!,,!t *. ~.:; ;.#~ viI_ . ~\-*<#nqt&@$#$:, keV;!,d-t,~~..,. :t10,/i4006008001000I 0= ~ ,:.;>;!%.*.* .; 1I1[.. ~-d~;&..J~~~ III qj$s$i,- !~;&/$102004006008001000 -2 XIO*ln/cm21$ (GAMMAENERGY)Thedeteriorationofahigh-res olutionsolid-statedetectorgammaspec-trum withincreasingneutronjhence(4). ( ) ,Jr.,andMarciaLucastocoolthedetectormate rialelectronically( ),buttheseeffortsarestillintheexperiment alstages, [Si(Li)].Theloweratomicnumberofsiliconco mparedtogermaniumreducesthephotoelectric efficiencybyafactorofabout50(seeChapter2 ),butthistypeofdetectorhasbeenwidelyused inthemeasurementofx-rayspectrainthe1-to5 0-keVenergyrangeandfindssomeapplicationi nx-rayfluorescence(XRF)measurements(seeC hapter10).]

7 Thelowphotoelectricefficiencyofsiliconab ove50keVisanadvantagewhenmeasuringlow-en ergyxraysandgammarays, ,aswellasmanyotherapplica-tionsofgamma-r ayspectroscopy,itwouldbeadvantageoustoha vehigh-resolutiondetectorsoperatingatroo mtemperature, ,Hg12,andGaAshasbeenextensivelyresearche d( ).Theirhigheraverageatomicnumbers, ,thesedetectormaterialshaveenjoyedlimite dap-plicationtoNDAproblemstodate, ,thesedetectorsmaybecomemoreattractiveas convenient, ~-RayEnergyAtomice-hPair(6)aResolutionat 122keV~MaterialNumbers(eV)(keV)Ge(77K) (300K)48, (300K)80, (300K)31, (300K)c11, Thisquantitydeterminesthenumberofchargec arriersproducedinaninteraction.

8 ( )bRepresentativeresolutiondata, Whilenotasemiconductormaterial, , (MCA), (spectrum)ofthedetectedoutputpulses, , (a). :(1)thequantumuncertaintiesintheenergies ofthetransi-tions(theso-calledHeisenberg Uncertainty),and(2) , ,the ideal , , (b). (b) ,afterleavingthesample,willbescatteredby externalmaterialsbeforeenteringthedetect or,andthiseffectcanshowupinthefinalenerg yspectrum(seebelow).Whenthegammarayenter sthedetectionmedium,ittransferspartorall ofitsenergytoanatomicelectron, ,inaseriesofcollisions, (seeTable3-1).Aphotoelectricinteractiont ransfersalloftheincidentphoton senergytoaphotoelectron; ,Jr.

9 , (~~~j~EOPULSESFROMSINGLEPHOTONINTERACTIO NSINTHEDETECTOREc1t1 -RayEnergyE;(a)(b)(c)Anidealizationofthe photonspectrum(a)producedbyPeenuclei,(b) emergingjiomamaterialsample,and(c) - . ]ypartoftheincidentphoton senergytoanionizedelectron; ;however, (c).Themaximumenergythatcanbedepositedin thedetectionmediumfromaComptonscattering eventcomesfromaneventwherethephotonissca tteredby180 .TheCompton-generateddetectorpulsesareth ereforedistributedbelowthismaximumenergy [ (c)]andconstituteasourceof background (c) ( ). )A3n MONOENERGETICGAMMA-RAYFLUXGEcBEoDETECTOR PULSEAMPLITUDE(y-RAYENERGY) ,Jr.

10 , , ( ). ,distributedsmoothlyuptoamaximumenergyEC ( ), (EC) head-on collisionbetweenthephotonandtheelectron, wheretheelectronmovesforwardandthegamma- rayscattersbackwardthrough180 ( ). Comptonl%lley. Foramonoenergeticsource,pulsesinthisregi onarisefromeithermultipleComptonscatteri ngeventsorfromfull-energyinteractionsbyp hotonsthathaveundergonesmall-anglescatte ring(ineitherthesourcematerialsorinterve ningmaterials) , -120 ,amonoenergeticsourcewillgiverisetomanys catteredgammarayswhoseenergiesarenearthi sminimumvalue( ). ,eventsinthisregionarefromhigh-energygam maraysandcosmic-raymuonsinthenaturalback groundandfrompulse-pileupeventsifthecoun trateishighenough(seeChapter4).