METHODS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

1 METHODS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHFrom Theory to PracticeMarguerite G. Lodico, Dean T. Spaulding,Katherine H. 2/7/06 3:33 PM Page 2/7/06 3:33 PM Page iiMETHODS IN EDUCATIONAL 2/7/06 3:33 PM Page 2/7/06 3:33 PM Page iiMETHODS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHFrom Theory to PracticeMarguerite G. Lodico, Dean T. Spaulding,Katherine H. 2/7/06 3:33 PM Page iiiCopyright 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights by Jossey-BassA Wiley Imprint989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741 part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any formor by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the priorwritten permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

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5 III. 2006370'.7'2 dc222005023416 Printed in the United States of AmericaFIRST EDITIONHB 2/7/06 3:33 PM Page ivvCONTENTST ables, Figures, and Exhibits xvPreface xixAcknowledgments xxiAbout the Authors xxiii1 Introduction to EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 1 Chapter Objectives 1 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Today 2 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH : Using the Scientific Method 4 Philosophical Frameworks for EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 6 Scientific RealismSocial ConstructivismAdvocacy or Liberatory FrameworkPragmatismTypes of Approaches Used in EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 10 Basic Versus Applied RESEARCH ApproachesQuantitative RESEARCH ApproachesQualitative RESEARCH 2/7/06 3.

6 34 PM Page vResearch Approaches Using qualitative or Quantitative Approaches (or Both)Chapter Summary 19 Key Concepts 19 Discussion Questions or Activities 21 Suggested Readings 212 Identifying and Researching a Topic 22 Chapter Objectives 22 Getting Started 23 Developing Ideas for RESEARCH Studies: Possible TopicsFrom Topics to QuestionsDeveloping a More Focused RESEARCH QuestionSearching the Literature 31 Type of SourcesFinding SourcesSummarizing Information from ArticlesWhen Do I Have Enough?Chapter Summary 47 Key Concepts 47 Discussion Questions or Activities 48 Suggested Reading 483 The RESEARCH Proposal 49 Chapter Objectives 49 Preparing a RESEARCH Proposal 49 Why Write a RESEARCH Proposal?

7 Anatomy of a RESEARCH ProposalChapter Summary 63 Key Concepts 64 Discussion Questions or Activities 64 Suggested Readings 644 Measurement in EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH and Assessment: Preestablished Instruments and Archival Data 65 Chapter Objectives 65 Preestablished Instruments and Archival Data 66 Preestablished 2/7/06 3:34 PM Page viTypes of Preestablished MeasuresArchival DataScales of Measurement 72 Summarizing Data Using Descriptive Statistics 74 Frequency DistributionsWhat is a Typical or Average Score? Measures of Central TendencyMeasures of VariabilityTypes of Scores Used to Compare Performance on EDUCATIONAL MeasuresUse of Correlational Coefficients in Evaluating MeasuresEvaluating the Quality of EDUCATIONAL Measures.

8 Reliability and Validity 87 ReliabilityValidityFinding Preestablished MeasuresCriteria for Selecting Preestablished InstrumentsReliability and Validity in Archival DataChapter Summary 100 Key Concepts 102 Discussion Questions or Activities 103 Suggested Readings 1045 Self-Developed Measures and qualitative Measurement 105 Chapter Objectives 105 Self-Developed Instruments 106 Developing Scales for Use in Surveys 106 Likert ScalesSemantic Differential ScalesEstablishing Reliability and Validity for SurveysDeveloping Observational Checklists 113 Reliability and Validity for Observational ChecklistsDeveloping Measurement Procedures and Tools for qualitative Studies 116 Use of ObservationsObservational ProtocolsUse of InterviewsInterview ProtocolsUse of Documents and ArtifactsDeveloping Measurement Tools for Action RESEARCH 2/7/06 3:34 PM Page viiChecklists and Rating ScalesGrading RubricsJournalsRecords and DocumentsMaps, Photographs, and ArtifactsEvaluating the Quality of Measures Used in Action ResearchChapter Summary 135 Key Concepts 136 Discussion Questions or Activities 137 Suggested Readings 1376 Working with RESEARCH Participants.

9 Sampling and Ethics 139 Chapter Objectives 139 Selecting Participants 139 Sampling in qualitative ResearchSampling in Quantitative ResearchTypes of Random SamplingNonrandom SamplesSample Size and Survey Response RatesEthical Issues and Participants 146 Ethics in qualitative ResearchEthics in Quantitative ResearchChapter Summary 152 Key Concepts 153 Discussion Questions or Activities 154 Suggested Readings 1547 Descriptive-Survey RESEARCH 155 Chapter Objectives 155 RESEARCH Vignette 155 Characteristics of Descriptive-Survey RESEARCH 156 Writing a RESEARCH QuestionWriting SubquestionsSteps for Doing Descriptive-Survey RESEARCH 159 Step 1: Designing and Developing a Survey or QuestionnaireStep 2: Selecting the 2/7/06 3:34 PM Page viiiStep 3: Piloting the SurveyStep 4.

10 Administering the SurveyTypes of Survey Studies 171 Designs that Follow the Same Sample Over TimeDesigns that Select Different Samples Over TimeOther Types of Descriptive RESEARCH 173 Chapter Summary 174 Key Concepts 175 Discussion Questions or Activities 175 Suggested Readings 1768 Experimental RESEARCH 177 Chapter Objectives 177 RESEARCH Vignette 177 Understanding Experimental RESEARCH 178 Steps in Planning and Conducting Experimental ResearchAnalyzing the Data 187 Making a Decision About the HypothesisFormulating ConclusionsThreats to Experimental Validity 188 Threats to Internal ValidityThreats to External ValiditySingle-Subject RESEARCH Designs 200 Types of Single Subject ResearchExternal and Internal ValidityChapter Summary 204 Key Concepts 206 Discussion Questions or Activities 206 Suggested Readings 2079 Nonexperimental Approaches: Causal-Comparative andCorrelational RESEARCH 208 Chapter Objectives 208 RESEARCH Vignette 209 Causal-Comparative RESEARCH 209 Steps in Causal-Comparative 2/7/06 3.