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Oxford Modern English Grammar - Web Education

Oxford Modern English GrammarBas Aarts is Professor of English Linguistics and Director of the Survey ofEnglish Usage at University College London. His previous books includeSmall Clauses in English : The Nonverbal Types (Mouton de Gruyter, 1992);The Verb in Contemporary English , co-edited with Charles F. Meyer(Cambridge University Press, 1995); English Syntax and Argumentation(Palgrave, 1997, 2001, 2008); Investigating Natural Language: Workingwith the British Component of the International Corpus of English , co-authored with Gerald Nelson and Sean Wallis (John Benjamins, 2002);Fuzzy Grammar : A Reader , co-edited with David Denison, Evelien Keizer,and Gergana Popova ( Oxford University Press, 2004); The Handbook ofEnglish Linguistics , co-edited with April McMahon (Blackwell, 2006); andSyntactic Gradience: The Nature of Grammatical Indeterminacy (OxfordUniversity Press, 2007). He is one of the founding editors of the journalEnglish Language and Linguistics.

the two most complete and in-depth accounts of English grammar currently available, namely Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik’s Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) and Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey Pullum et al.’s Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002). These grammars offer

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1 Oxford Modern English GrammarBas Aarts is Professor of English Linguistics and Director of the Survey ofEnglish Usage at University College London. His previous books includeSmall Clauses in English : The Nonverbal Types (Mouton de Gruyter, 1992);The Verb in Contemporary English , co-edited with Charles F. Meyer(Cambridge University Press, 1995); English Syntax and Argumentation(Palgrave, 1997, 2001, 2008); Investigating Natural Language: Workingwith the British Component of the International Corpus of English , co-authored with Gerald Nelson and Sean Wallis (John Benjamins, 2002);Fuzzy Grammar : A Reader , co-edited with David Denison, Evelien Keizer,and Gergana Popova ( Oxford University Press, 2004); The Handbook ofEnglish Linguistics , co-edited with April McMahon (Blackwell, 2006); andSyntactic Gradience: The Nature of Grammatical Indeterminacy (OxfordUniversity Press, 2007). He is one of the founding editors of the journalEnglish Language and Linguistics.

2 Oxford Modern English GrammarBas AartsDepartment of English Language and Literature University College London Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX 2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of furthers the University s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,and Education by publishing worldwide inOxford New YorkAuckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong KarachiKuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City NairobiNew Delhi Shanghai Taipei TorontoWith offices inArgentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France GreeceGuatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal SingaporeSouth Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine VietnamOxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Pressin the UK and in certain other countriesPublished in the United Statesby Oxford University Press Inc., New York Oxford University Press 2011 The moral rights of the author have been assertedDatabase right Oxford University Press (maker)First published 2011 All rights reserved.

3 No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriatereprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproductionoutside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address aboveYou must not circulate this book in any other binding or coverand you must impose the same condition on any acquirerBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication DataData availableLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataData availableTypeset by Glyph International, Bangalore, IndiaPrinted in Great Britainon acid-free paper byClays Ltd., St Ives plcISBN 978 0 19 953319 01 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2In memory of my mother Sj Aarts-Postmes (1934 2008)ContentsList of figuresList of tablesPrefaceNotational conventions and abbreviationsAbbreviationsPart I: The basicsChapter 1: An overview of English grammarPart II: Form and functionChapter 2: Word structure and word-formationChapter 3: Word classes and simple phrasesChapter 4: Grammatical functions, semantic roles, and tree diagramsPart III: Phrase and clause patternsChapter 5: Complex phrases and coordinationChapter 6: Clause types and negationChapter 7: Finite subordinate clausesChapter 8: Non-finite and verbless subordinate clausesPart IV: Grammar and meaningChapter 9: Tense and aspectChapter 10: MoodChapter 11: Information structuringAppendix 1: English irregular verbsAppendix 2.

4 The structure of the ICE-GB corpusNotes and further readingList of sources of examplesReferencesSubject IndexLexical IndexList of figuresFigure : The field of morphologyFigure : The subclassification of English verbsList of :The person :The paradigm for the regular verb :The paradigm for the irregular verb :The progressive, perfect, and passive :The present tense forms of the verb :Non-finite :The case forms of personal :The inflectional forms of adjectives and :Some common derivational :Some common derivational :Compound :Compound :Compound :Compound :Compound :Combining :Word :Some common nominal :The distributional properties of typical :Pronoun :Reflexive :Reciprocal :Relative :Interrogative :Demonstrative :Indefinite :The distributional properties of typical :The distributional properties of typical :The modal :The perfect :The progressive :The passive :Uses of dummy :Complex :Deverbal :Subordinating :Grammatical :The properties of typical :The properties of typical Direct :A selection of transitive :The properties of typical Indirect :A selection of ditransitive :A selection of linking :A selection of complex transitive :The distributional properties of typical :The distributional properties of :A selection of verbs licensing :The distributional properties of typical :Semantic :Grammatical functions at phrase :Determiners in noun :Predeterminers in noun :Complements in noun :Adjuncts in noun :Complements in adjective :Adjuncts in adjective :Complements in verb :Basic complementation :An overview of constructions involving non-locative PPsfunctioning as :An overview of constructions involving locative PPsfunctioning as :Adjuncts in verb :Complements in prepositional :Conjunctive :Conjunctive complex.

5 Adjuncts in prepositional :Complements in adverb :Adjuncts in adverb :The properties of declarative :The properties of open interrogative :The properties of closed interrogative :The properties of imperative :The properties of exclamative :Overview of the clause types: syntax and :Finite subordinate :Content :Verbs occurring in the pattern DECIDE [ clause that ..] :Verbs occurring in the pattern WONDER [ clause if/whether/wh-phrase ..] :Verbs occurring in the pattern MENTION ([ PP to NP]) [ clause ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern TELL NP [ clause that ..] :Verbs occurring in the pattern ASK NP [ clause whether/if/wh-phrase ..] :Verbs occurring in the pattern PERSUADE NP [ clause that .. ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern REMIND NP [ clause whether/if/ ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern It SEEM (PP) [ clause (that/as if)..] :The scalar/non-scalar and equality/inequality :Non-finite :Verbs occurring in the pattern WANT [ clause (for ) NP ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern HESITATE [ clause , to- [ ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern WONDER [ clause whether/wh-phrase to ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern TELL NPi [ clause i ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern TELL NPi [ clause wh -phrase i to ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern PERSUADE NPi [ clause i ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern ADVISE NPi [ clause whether/wh-phrase i ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern HAVE [ clause NP ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern bare ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern REMEMBER [ clause ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern RECOMMEND [ clause NP/NP s ] :Verbs occurring in the pattern PREVENT ]] :Verbs occurring in the pattern REGARD ]] :Verbs occurring in the pattern FIND NPi [ clause i ].

6 Verbs occurring in the pattern DESCRIBE NPi [ PP as [ clause i -ing ]] :Verbs occurring in the pattern HAVE [ clause NP ] :Frequencies of the English core modal auxiliaries per millionwords in the ICE-GB :The morphosyntactic properties of the modal :The uses of WILL :The uses of :The uses of :The uses of CAN / :The uses of MAY :The uses of MUSTP refaceThe aim of this Grammar is to offer a Modern , concise, but neverthelesswide-ranging description of the structure of contemporary standard Britishand American English . The book is intended for anyone who is interested inEnglish Grammar , and has been written without an assumption on my partthat the reader has any previous knowledge of grammatical account of Grammar presented in this book is descriptive, notprescriptive: it describes the language as it is used today. Readers hoping tofind confirmation that the so-called split infinitive is an odiousmanifestation of the decline of the English language to give but oneexample of a common usage shibboleth will be disappointed.

7 The viewtaken here is that the English language is not a static entity, but iscontinually subject to inevitable change, which is reflected in its lexis is not possible to write a book like this without acknowledging previouswork on English Grammar . The framework adopted here relies heavily onthe two most complete and in-depth accounts of English Grammar currentlyavailable, namely Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech,and Jan Svartvik s Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language(1985) and Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey Pullum et al. s CambridgeGrammar of the English Language (2002). These grammars offersophisticated and detailed descriptions of English that go far beyond thescope of the present book. It should be noted, however, that I have not in allcases followed the grammatical analyses presented in these books. Themajor points of divergence are discussed in the Notes and further owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Flor Aarts, Peter Collins, RodneyHuddleston, and Geoffrey Leech (in alphabetical order) for reading theentire manuscript and commenting on it in great detail.

8 I am very fortunateto have received this tremendously valuable feedback from such eminentgrammarians, and their input has made this a much better book than itwould otherwise have been. I m also grateful to my editors at OxfordUniversity Press, Ben Harris, Vicky Donald, Rebecca Lane and ClareJenkins. For their help during the editing stage I would like to thank JillBowie for her superb copy-editing, Helen Liebeck for proofreading, andPhil Aslett for compiling the subject AARTSU niversity College LondonApril 2010 Notational conventions and abbreviationsNotational conventions*An asterisk indicates an impossible structure, astructure that does not conform to the grammatical rules ofEnglish. Example: *They likes to read . In this examplethe third person plural Subject they is followed by a verbwith a third person singular inflectional ending. This symbol is used to indicate an implicit : I want [ to read it].

9 Is used to indicate an implicit relativized : The power [that rel enables this union]Coleridge categorized as the imagination . subThis is used to indicate a missing subordinatingconjunction that . Example: They think [ sub they arefunny ]. This symbol is used where the form label can be ofdifferent kinds (that is, where the function can be realizedby different kinds of forms).arrowsThese indicate movement, passivization,extraposition, or raising. Example: to enjoycricket . The underscore symbol is explained are used:[..](1) to indicate words that together form a constituentphrase, clause, etc. A labelled bracketing includes asubscript indicator of the syntactic status of theconstituent. Example: [ NP Cats ] [VP eat [ NP fish ]]; (2) toindicate that a lexical item, usually a verb, is followed bya Complement which contains a particular word. Example:HAVE [to ] indicates that the verb HAVE is followed by aComplement that contains the word to , I have toleave.

10 CapitalsThese are used:(1) to indicate functional grammatical labels, Subject,Direct Object;(2) semantic roles, Agent, that are coreferential can be coindexed, bear thesame subscript letter, usually an i . Example: He i shaveshimselfi twice every day .italicsThese are used:(1) to indicate the first time a particular technical term isused;(2) to cite words, sentences, etc. as linguistic forms;(3) to indicate words, phrases, etc. that requirehighlighting. For underlined italics, see indicate lexemes ( dictionary words). Example:the forms laugh, laughs, laughed , and laughing areinflectional forms belonging to the lexeme LAUGH . Thesmall caps notation will be used for verbs throughout, andfor other word classes whenever italicized technical terms, underlining is used todistinguish citations of particular words (or otherelements), existential there , ing participle clauses .underscore( _ )This symbol indicates a gap in the clause with which adisplaced element is associated.


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