PAIN ASSESSMENT

1 107 PAIN ASSESSMENT8107lSTRUCTUREANDFUNCTIONDEFIN ITIONThe International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP)defines pain as an unpleasant sensory and emotional expe-rience, which we primarily associate with tissue damageor describe in terms of such damage, or both. Recentliterature has emphasized the importance of pain andrecommended it being the fifth vital sign. Some states inthe United States have passed laws necessitating the adop-tion of an ASSESSMENT tool and documenting pain assess-ment in patient charts along with temperature, pulse, heartrate and blood pressure (see Chapter 7).PATHOPHYSIOLOGYS everal theories attempt to explain the concept of and Wall in 1965 proposed the gate control modelemphasizing the importance of the central nervous sys-tem mechanisms of pain; this model has influenced painresearch and is explained as a combination of physiologicphenomena in addition to a psychosocial aspect that influ-ences the perception of pathophysiologic phenomenon of pain is sum-marized by the processes of transduction, transmission,modulation, and pain begins when a mechanical, ther-mal or chemical stimulus results in tissue injury or damagestimulating the nociceptors, which are the primary affer-ent nerves for receiving painful stimuli.

2 Nociceptorsaredistributed in the body in the skin, subcutaneous tissue,skeletal muscles, and joints. Pain receptors are also locatedin the peritoneal surfaces, pleural membranes, dura mater,andblood vessel walls rather than in the parenchyma ofvisceral organs. Noxious stimuli initiate a painful stimulusresulting in an inflammatory process, which leads to therelease of cytokines and neuropeptides from circulatingleukocytes, platelets, vascular endothelial cells, immunecells, and cells from within the peripheral nervous sys-tem. This results in the activation of the primary afferentnociceptors (A-delta and C-fibers). Furthermore, the noci-ceptors themselves release a substance P that enhancesnociception, causing vasodilatation, increased blood flow,and edema with further release of bradykinin, serotoninfrom platelets, and histamine from mast primary afferent fibers (small-diameter, lightlymyelinated fibers) and C-fibers (unmyelinated, primaryafferent fibers) are classified as nociceptors because theyare stimulated by noxious stimuli.

3 A-delta primary afferentfibers transmit fast pain to the spinal cord within sec-ond, which is felt as pricking, sharp, or electric quality sen-sation and usually caused by mechanical or thermal transmit slow pain within 1 second, which isfelt as burning, throbbing or aching and is caused bymechanical, thermal or chemical stimuli usually result-ing in tissue damage. By the direct excitation of the pri-mary afferent fibers, the stimulus leads to the activationof the fiber transmission processis initiated by this inflam-matory process, resulting in the conduction of an impulsein the primary afferent neurons to the dorsal horn of thespinal cord. There, neurotransmitters are released and con-centrated in the substantia gelatinosa (which is thought tohost the gating mechanism described in the gate controltheory) and bind to specific receptors.

4 The output neuronsfrom the dorsal horn cross the anterior white commissureand ascend the spinal cord in the anterolateral quadrant intwo ascending pathways (Fig. 8-1):1. Spinothalamic tract (STT): ascends through the lat-eral edge of the medulla, lateral pons, and midbrainto the thalamus then to the somatosensory cortex. It 108 UNIT III NURSING ASSESSMENT OF THE ADULT transmits location, quality, and intensity of acute painand threatening Spinoreticular tract (SRT): ascends to the reticular for-mation, the pontine, medullary areas, and medial tha-lamic nuclei. It transmits pain information from thebrainstem to the limbic area through pain is a difficult phenomenon. Mod-ulation inhibits the pain message and involves the body sown endogenous neurotransmitters (endorphins, enkeph-alins,and serotonin) in the course of processing thepain process of pain perceptionis still poorly under-stood.

5 Studies have shown that the emotional status(depression and anxiety) affects directly the level of painperceived and thus reported by patients. The hypothal-amus and limbic system are responsible for the emotionalaspect of the pain perception while the frontal cortex isresponsible for the rational interpretation and responseto has many different classifications. Common cate-gories of pain include acute, chronic non-malignant, andcancer pain. Acute pain: usually associated with an injury witha recent onset and duration of less than 6 monthsand usually less than a month Chronic non-malignant pain: usually associatedwith a specific cause or injury and is described asa constant pain that persists more than 6 months Cancer pain: often due to the compression ofperipheral nerves or meninges or from thedamage to these structures following surgery,chemotherapy, radiation, or tumor growth andinfiltrationPain is also described as transient pain, tissue injurypain (surgical pain, trauma-related pain, burn pain, iatro-genic pain as a result of an intervention), and chronicneuropathic pain.

6 Also pain is viewed in terms of its inten-sity and RESPONSES TO PAINPain elicits a stress response in the human body triggeringthe sympathetic nervous system, resulting in physiologicresponses such as the following: Anxiety, fear, hopelessness, sleeplessness,thoughts of suicide Focus on pain, reports of pain, cries and moans,frowns and facial grimaces Decrease in cognitive function, mental confu-sion, altered temperament, high somatization,and dilated pupils Increased heart rate, peripheral , systemic, andcoronary vascular resistance, blood pressure Increased respiratory rate and sputum retentionresulting in infection and atelactasis Decreased gastric and intestinal motility Decreased urinary output resulting in urinaryretention, fluid overload, depression of allimmune responses Increased antidiuretic hormone, epinephrine,norepinephrine, aldosterone, glucagons,decreased insulin, testosterone Hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, insulinresistance.

7 Protein catabolism Muscle spasm resulting in impaired musclefunction and immobility, perspirationlHEALTHASSESSMENTCOLLECTING SUBJECTIVE DATA:THE NURSING HEALTH HISTORYT here are few objective findings on which the assess-ment of pain can rely. Pain is a subjective phenomenonand thus the main ASSESSMENT lies in the client s report-ing. The client s description of pain is quoted. The exactwords used to describe the experienced of pain are usedPostcentral gyrusA-deltaCAscendingpathwaysThalamusSp inalcordFigure 8-1 Pathways for transmitting 8 PAIN ASSESSMENT109to help in the diagnosis and management. Pain, its onset,duration, causes, alleviating and aggravating factors areassessed. Then the quality, intensity and the effects ofpain on the physical, psychosocial, and spiritual aspectsare questioned.

8 Past experience with pain in addition topast and current therapies are explored. Maintain a quiet and calm environment that is comfortable for the patient being interviewed. Maintain the client s privacy and ensure confidentiality. Ask the questions in an open-ended format. Listen carefully to the client s verbal descriptions and quote the terms used. Watch for the client s facial expressions and grimaces during the interview. DO NOT put words in the client s 8-2 TIPS FOR COLLECTING SUBJECTIVE DATAll HISTORY OF PRESENT HEALTH CONCERNR eview JCAHO standards (Display 8-1) and tips for col-lecting subjective data (Display 8-2) before assessing theclient s subjective experience of the COLDSPA mnemonic as a guideline for informa-tion to collect. In addition, the following questions helpelicit important O L D S P ACHARACTER:Describe the sign or symptom.

9 Howdoes it feel, look, sound, smell, and so forth?ONSET:When did it begin?LOCATION:Where is it? Does it radiate?DURATION:How long does it last? Does it recur?SEVERITY:How bad is it?PATTERN:What makes it better? What makes it worse?ASSOCIATEDFACTORS:What other symptomsoccur with it? Recognize patients rights to appropriate ASSESSMENT and management of pain. Screen for pain and assess the nature and intensity of pain in all patients. Record ASSESSMENT results in a way that allows regular reassessment and follow-up. Determine and ensure that staff is competent in assessing and managing pain. Address pain ASSESSMENT and management when orienting new clinical staff. Establish policies and procedures that support appropriate prescribing of pain medications. Ensure that pain doesn t interfere with a patient s participation in rehabilitation.

10 Educate patients and their families about effective pain management. Address patient needs for symptom management in the discharge planning process. Establish a way to collect facility-wide data to monitor the appropriateness and effectiveness of the pain management 8-1 JCAHO STANDARDS FOR PAIN MANAGEMENTJ oint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. [Retrieved from: ]Following JCAHO standards and tips for collecting sub-jective data will enhance evaluation of the client s per-sonal experience of establish the presence or absence of perceived location of pain helps to identify the or spreading pain helps to identify the example, chest pain radiating to the left arm is mostprobably of cardiac origin while the pain that is prick-ing and spreading in the chest muscle area is probablymusculoskeletal in symptoms also help to identify the possi-ble source.