Transcription of Research Methods in Human Development
1 , ,SanMarcos!MayfieldPublishingCompanyMoun tainView,CaliforniaLondon. TorontoCopyright 1999, ] :Researchmethodsinhumandevelopment/ , , , , '.72-DC2198-16053 CIPM anufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica109 87 6 543 2 MayfieldPublishingCompany1280 VillaStreetMountainView,California94041 Sponsoringeditor, ;productioneditors,LindaWardandLynnRabin -Bauer;manuscripteditor,KayMikel;textand coverdesigner,SusanBreitbard;arteditor,A myFolden;illustrator,JoanCarol;manufactu ringmanager, Typesettersandprintedon50#FinchOpaquebyR . ,fromPsychologicalAbstracts, ,#19842, , 1995bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociatio n. ContentsPrefacexviiCHAPTER1 TheScientificView1 UseofResearchMethods1 TheScientificApproach2 TheLimitationsofIntuitionandAuthority2 Skepticism,Science,andtheEmpiricalApproa ch3 GoalsofScience4 DescriptionofBehavior4 PredictionofBehavior4 CausesandExplanationsofBehavior5 BasicandAppliedResearch5 BasicResearch5 AppliedResearch6 ComparingBasicandAppliedResearch7 EvaluationResearch8 DevelopmentalResearch9 CulturalResearch9 Summary10 KeyTerms10 ReviewQuestions11 CHAPTER2 EthicalConcerns12 Milgram' ResearchArticle42 Abstract43 Introduction43 Method43 Results44 Discussion44 Summary44 KeyTerms45 ReviewQuestions45 CHAPTER4 StudyingRelationshipsBetweenVariables46 ScientificVariables46 OperationalDefinitions47 IndependentandDependentVariables48 TypesofDependentMeasures49 Self".
2 ANExPERIMENTALSTUDY70 EthicalConsiderations71 DescriptionofBehavior72 PredictionofBehavior73 Summary73 VIIIC ontentsKeyTerms74 ReviewQuestions74 CHAPTER6 DescriptiveMethods75 WhyConductDescriptiveStudies? :CONFOUNDING120 Maturation121 Testing121 Instrumentation121 StatisticalRegression122 Mortality123 SelectionDifferences124 DiagrammingExperimentalDesigns124 :ALZHEIMER' :SOCIALCOMPETENCEINPRESCHOOLERS-JUSTHowM ANYIsAFEW? :TEACHERRATINGSVERSUSOBSERVERRATINGS193 SourcesforSelf-ReportMeasures194 SourcesforFamilyMeasures194 SourcesforPersonalityMeasures194 SourcesforDemographicMeasures195 Summary197 KeyTerms198 ReviewQuestions198 CHAPTER12 FactorialDesigns199 IncreasingtheNumberofLevelsofanIndepende ntVariable199 IncreasingtheNumberofDependentVariables2 02 IncreasingtheNumberofIndependentVariable s:FactorialDesigns202 FactorialNotation203 InterpretationofEffectsinFactorialDesign s204 MainEffects205 InteractionEffects206 DescribingMainEffectsandInteractionEffec ts207 PossibleOutcomesof2X2 FactorialDesigns208 FurtherConsiderationsinFactorialDesigns2 11 SubjectVariables211 DesignsWithMoreThanTwoIndependentVariabl es212 Summary213 KeyTerms214 ReviewQuestions214 CHAPTER13 AssigningParticipantstoConditions215 AssigningParticipantstoExperimentalCondi tions215 IndependentGroupsDesigns216 SimpleRandomAssignment216 MatchedRandomAssignment216 RepeatedMeasuresDesigns218 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofRepeatedMeas uresDesigns218 CounterbalancinginRepeatedMeasuresDesign s220 AssigningParticipantstoGroupsinFactorial Designs220 ChoosingBetweenIndependentGroupsandRepea tedMeasuresDesigns222 ExamplesofHumanDevelopmentResearchQuesti ons223 AgeGroupComparisons223 SpecialPopulations224 FamilyVariables225 Summary226 KeyTerms226 ReviewQuestions227 CHAPTER14 UnderstandingResearchResults228
3 AnalyzingtheResultsofResearchInvestigati ons228 ComparingGroupPercentages228 CorrelatingIndividualScores229 ComparingGroupMeans229 FrequencyDistributions230 FrequencyPolygons230 Histograms230 DescriptiveStatisticsVersusInferentialSt atistics231 DescriptiveStatistics231 CentralTendency232 Variability232 GraphingRelationships233 InferentialStatistics234 HypothesisTesting235 Probability236 Probability:TheCaseoftheGiftedBaby237 SamplingDistributions238 IssuesinDecisionMaking239 CorrectDecisions240 TypeIandTypeIIErrors240 ExamplesofTypeIandTypeIIErrors241 Choosinga :HAPPINESSINELDERLYCiTIZENS251 StatisticalPhrases251 AnalysisofVariance:TheFStatistic252 CorrelationCoefficient255 IndexingtheStrengthofa Relationship255 GraphingCorrelationsWithScatterplots256 InterpretingCorrelations258 RestrictionoftheRange258 CurvilinearRelationships258 Significanceofa :HIGHSCHOOLSTUDENTSINJAPAN,CHINA,ANDTHEU NITEDSTATES266 ComputerAnalysisofData267 Summary270 KeyTerms270 ReviewQuestions271 CHAPTER16 Generalizability272 Generalizationasa StatisticalInteraction272 TheImportanceofReplications274 ExactReplications274 ConceptualReplications275 GeneralizingtoOtherParticipantPopulation s276 Volunteers276 EducationalLevel:CollegeStudents277 AgeGroup277 Diversity278 InDefenseofMiddle-ClassWhiteFamiliesinDe velopmentalResearch279 GeneralizingtoOtherExperimenters279 GeneralizingtoOtherSettings280 MundaneandExperimentalRealism280 MutualBenefitsofLabandFieldResearch281 EvaluatingGeneralizations.
4 LiteratureReviewsandMeta-Analysis281 UsingResearchtoChangeCommunitiesandFamil ies283 Summary284 KeyTerms285 ReviewQuestions285 APPENDIXAW ritingResearchReports287 WritingStyle288 Clarity288 AcknowledgingtheWorkofOthers289 ActiveVersusPassiveVoice289 BiasedLanguage289 TypingandWordProcessing290 OrganizationoftheReport291 TitlePage292 Abstract293 Introduction293 Method294 Results295 Discussion297 References298 Appendix298 AuthorNote298 Footnotes298 Tables299 Figures299 Summary:OrderofPages300 TheUseofHeadings300 CitingandReferencingSources301 CitationStyle301 ReferenceListStyle303 XVIC ontentsAbbreviations306 SomeGrammaticalConsiderations307 TransitionWordsandPhrases307 TroublesomeWordsandPhrases309 ReportingNumbersandStatistics310 Conclusion311 SamplePaper311 APPENDIXBS tatisticalTests337 DescriptiveStatistics337 MeasuresofCentralTendency338 MeasuresofVariability339 StatisticalSignificanceTests340 Chi-Square(X2)340 AnalysisofVariance(FTest)343 AnalysisofVariance:OneIndependentVariabl e343 AnalysisofVariance:TwoIndependentVariabl es347 AnalysisofVariance:RepeatedMeasuresandMa tchedSubjects351 , ,thetextbookprovidesa "propriateforstudentsina widevarietyofdisciplinesinhumandevelopme nt,in-cludingchilddevelopment,education, familyrelations,psychology,gerontology,h umanservices, counseling ,socialwork, majorrevision, listingofkeyterms.
5 Keytermsappearinboldtypewithinthechapter s,tohelpstudentsrecognizeimportantterms, "ResearchinAction" ,includingbasic,applied,eval-uation,deve lopmental, ,withobservationalresearch,casestudies, ;wearegratefultoLindaWardandLynnRabin-Ba uerforproductionmanagement, ,ArizonaStateUniversity; ,UniversityofToledo; ,Califor-niaStateUniversity,LongBeach; ,Lindsey ,weoweadebtofgratitudetoNancyCaudill,hea doftheInterlibraryLoanUnitatCaliforniaSt ateUniversity,Fullerton, ,BruceBrown,BriscoCozby,MattKee,JeanneKi ng,HelenLopez,JudyTodd,andthe"giantpande rs" thetermbeginsandyouopenyourbooksforthefi rsttime,youmaybeask-1""\..ing:"WhyamI takingthiscourse?Howwillthiscoursehelpme ?"Ourgoalis ,youwillhavethetoolsyouneedtocriticallye valuatere-search,conductyourownstudies, ,andresearchwithindividualsaswellaswithg roups(forexample,familiesandclass-rooms) .Inallcases,thegoalis studentandasa :"MusiclessonsincreaseIQ,""Schooluniform sreducegangviolence,""Teachyourchildatho me,""Flexibleworkschedulesreducestressfo rworkingparents,""Secondhandsmokecausesh yperactivity.
6 "Aretheviewspresentedinthesestoriescorre ct?Shouldyouaccepttheconclusionsbecauset heresearchap-pearstobescientific?Abackgr oundinresearchmethodswillhelpyoutoreadth earticlescritically, "informedconsumer"ofresearch, , ' ,auditory, ,employeeswithfamiliesbenefitfromflexibl eworkschedulesthatallowthemtospendtimewi ththeirchildrenandspousesforimportantfam ilyoccasions, , ,theemergingdebateonnationaleducationals tandardsintheGoals2000programneedsextens ivein-putfromparents,educators, ,social, ,toreduceteenpregnancyortoincreaselow-in comeelderlyadults' ,suchprogramsmaybeimplementedona ,predict,explain, used, , ,afteryearsoftryingtocon-ceive,adoptsa ,withinaveryshortperiodoftime, conclusionseemsintuitivelyreasonable,and peopleusuallyhaveanexplanationforthiseff ect-forexample,theadoptionreducesamajors ourceofmaritalstress,andthestressreducti oninturnincreasesthechancesofconception( seeGilovich,1991).Whenyourelyonintuition , , ,youmightdevelopanexplanationforwhyyouke ephavingconflictswitha sibling,suchas"sharingacarputsusina conflictsituation"or"she'sjealousofmyfin ancialindependence.
7 "Othertimes,intuitionisusedtoexplainintr iguingeventsthatyouobserve,asinthecaseof concludingthatadop-tionincreasesthechanc esofconceptionamongcoupleshavingdifficul tycon-ceivinga ,sowemaydrawerroneousconclusionsaboutcau seandeffect( ,1984;Gilovich,1991;Nisbett&Ross,1980;Ni sbett&Wilson,1977).Gilovichpointsoutthat thereis,infact, cognitivebiascalledillusorycorrelation, closelyfollowedbya pregnancy,ourattentionisdrawntothesituat ion,andwearebiasedtoconcludethattheremus tbea naturalthingforustodo,it "Rhetoric,"Aristotledescribestherela-tio nshipbetweenpersuasionandcredibility:"Pe rsuasionisachievedbythespeaker' "(1984, ).Thus,Aristotlewouldarguethatwearemorel ikelytobepersuadedbya speakerwhoseemsprestigious,trustworthy, 'sargumentssimplybecauseheisconsid-eredt obea prestigiousauthority, ,manypeopleacceptanythingtheylearnfromth enewsmedia,books,govern-mentofficials, ,ofcourse, ;again, ,Science, ,scientistsdonotunquestioninglyScientifi c4 CHAPTER1 TheScientificViewacceptanyone' scientist'sintuitions, , ,theresearchmustbedoneina waythatcanbeobserved,evaluated, ,thescientificmethod,incontrasttointuiti onorauthority,doesnotrelyonacceptingidea sgeneratedbysomeoneelseorideasgeneratedf romone'sownpersonal, :(1)todescribebehavior,(2)topredictbehav -ior,and(3) todescribeevents,providinga completedescriptionofanactivityora ,a researcherinterestedinmaritaldiscordwoul duseresearchmethodstoprovidea completepictureofthefamily' , ,a researchermightconsiderhowreactionstostr essfuleventschangebe-tweenages4and8 , familymoveaffectchildren'semotionaldevel opment?
8 Dochildrenrecalleventsbetterif theydrawa picturedepictingtheincident?Dogirlsperfo rmbetterinscienceclasseswhenenrollmentin cludesbothgendersorwhenonlygirlsparticip ate?Dograndparentsphonetheirgrandchildre nmorewhentheylivefartherawayfromoneanoth er? certaintypesofparent-childrelationships? Canalcoholdepen-dencybepredictedfrombing edrinkingbehaviorduringthehighschoolyear s?CanIQbepredictedifyouknowhowmuchtimeap arentreadstoa child?Onceit hasbeenobservedwithsomeregularitythattwo eventsaresystematicallyre-latedtooneanot her, relationship, ,gangmembershipis agoodpredictorofado-lescentdelinquencyan dschooldropout(Cairns,Cairns,&Neckerman, 1989).ResearchbyDishion,Patterson,Stoolm iller,andSkinner(1991)identifieda ,peerrejection,andlackofparentalmonitori ngconsistentlypre-dict ,aneffectiveinterventiontoreduceinvolvem entwithantisocialpeerswouldtargetthechil d'saggressivebe-havior,themother'sandfat her'sparentingskills,andthechild' child'sag-gressivebehaviorisrelatedtothe amountofviolencethechildwatchesontelevi- sion(Liebert&Sprafkin,1988), ,doeswatchingTVviolenceleadchildrentobel ievethataggres-sionis anormalreactiontofrustration?
9 Child'saggressionmayrelatetotelevisionwa tching,age,experienceswithpeers,siblingr ivalry,biologicalfactorssuchashormonelev els,andthepar-ents' 'saggressivebehavior, ( ,observationandparent-report)inanat-temp ttounderstandwhya ,multi-methodapproachistime-consuming, , seriesofanalyticalsteps, knowingthatyouareinvolvedinthediscoveryo fknowledge;witheachnewfinding, todescribeanaspectofhumannature, ,learning,personalitydevelopment,aging,e ducation, ,thegoalisvery"basic"- :deHaan,M.,&Nelson, (1997).Recognitionofthemother'sfacebysix -month- ,68, , ,Yokoi,L.,Johnson,D.].,Lum,S.,Cafaro,T., &Kee, (1996).Effec- ,62, , ,&Wilson,L.(1992).Tellingthemlikeitis:Th eroleofeconomicanden-vironmentalfactorsi nsinglemothers' ,20, ,].,Berg, ,&Sansone,C.(1996). ,32, solu-tiontoaproblemortoimprovea 'smemoryabilities;appliedresearchwouldbe interestedinenhancingchildren' :Campbell,A].,Borrie,M.].,&Spears, (1989).Riskfactorsforfallsina :MedicalSciences,44, ,C.,&Graham,S.(1993). ,64, , ,Christoffel, ,&Donovan,M.
10 (1996). ,750, ,G.].,Arnold, ,Epstein,].N.,Angell,AL.,Smith,M.,&Fisch el,].E.(1994). ,30,679- 'sDefenseFund(1994)re-port,WastingAmeric a'sFuture:TheChildren' (sponsoredbythePrudentialFoundation)pres entsinforma-tionaboutpovertyinAmerica'sc hildrenandestimatesthecosts,bothhumanand financial, $177billionperyear,althoughit wouldtakeonly$ ( ,xvii,xxi): NearlyoneineverythreeAmericanchildrenwil lbepoorforatleastayearbeforeturning16. OneinfiveAmericanchildrenispoor. Theyoungerchildrenare, is poor,asare27%ofchildrenunderage3. Low-incomechildrenaretwotimesmorelikelyt odiefrombirthdefects,threetimesmorelikel ytodiefromallcausescombined,fourtimesmor elikelytodiefromfires,fivetimesmorelikel ytodiefrominfectiousdiseasesandparasites ,andsixtimesmorelikelytodiefromotherdise ases. MoreWhitethanBlackchildrenarepoor. , ,theyarecommonlyusedtogetherandarebestco nceptualizedasinterconnected(seeBerk,Bor uch,Chambers,Rossi,&Witte,1986). particularproblem,examiningthesameissuei nanaturalsetting, , ,anewresearchdisciplinethatstudiesthepre ventionofhumandysfunction(Coieetal.)
