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SELECTIVE PERCEPTION

CHAPTER1 SELECTIVEPERCEPTION"Wedonotfirstsee,then define,wedefinefirstandthensee."-WalterL ippmann(citedinSnyder&Uranowitz,1978) , , ,butaswillbecomeclear, , (1949).BrunerandPostmanpresentedpeoplewi thaseriesoffiveplayingcardsonatachis-tos cope(amachinethatcandisplaypicturesforve rybriefintervals), !BrunerandPostmanfoundthatittookpeoplemo rethanfourtimeslongertorecognizeatrickca rdthananor-malcard,andtheyfoundthatmostr eactionstotheincongruitycouldbecategoriz edasoneoffourtypes:dominance,compromise, disrup-tion, "perceptualdenial."Forexample,facedwitha blackthreeofhearts, ,formisdominantandcolorisassimilatedtopr iorexpectations,andinthesecondcase,color 1516 PERCEPTION ,MEMORY, 'sexperi-ment,27of28subjects(or96percent ofthepeople) ,someofBrunerandPostman' "greyish"fourofspades,orthataredsixofclu bswas"thesixofclubsilluminatedbyredlight "(remember,experi-mentalsubjectswereshow nthecardsonatachistoscope).

whereas Princeton students saw the Dartmouth team commit more than twice as many infractions as the Princeton team (9.8 compared with 4.2 for themselves). In fact, there was such a discrepancy in perceptions that when Princeton sent a copy of the film to several Dartmouth alum­ ni for a group showing, one Dartmouth alumnus who previewed the

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Transcription of SELECTIVE PERCEPTION

1 CHAPTER1 SELECTIVEPERCEPTION"Wedonotfirstsee,then define,wedefinefirstandthensee."-WalterL ippmann(citedinSnyder&Uranowitz,1978) , , ,butaswillbecomeclear, , (1949).BrunerandPostmanpresentedpeoplewi thaseriesoffiveplayingcardsonatachis-tos cope(amachinethatcandisplaypicturesforve rybriefintervals), !BrunerandPostmanfoundthatittookpeoplemo rethanfourtimeslongertorecognizeatrickca rdthananor-malcard,andtheyfoundthatmostr eactionstotheincongruitycouldbecategoriz edasoneoffourtypes:dominance,compromise, disrup-tion, "perceptualdenial."Forexample,facedwitha blackthreeofhearts, ,formisdominantandcolorisassimilatedtopr iorexpectations,andinthesecondcase,color 1516 PERCEPTION ,MEMORY, 'sexperi-ment,27of28subjects(or96percent ofthepeople) ,someofBrunerandPostman' "greyish"fourofspades,orthataredsixofclu bswas"thesixofclubsilluminatedbyredlight "(remember,experi-mentalsubjectswereshow nthecardsonatachistoscope).

2 HalfofBrunerandPostman'ssubjectsshowedco mpromiseresponsestoredcards, , ,butwhenithappened, ,oneexperimentalsubjectexclaimed:"Idon't knowwhatthehellitisnow, 'saplayingcard."Likewise,anothersubjects aid:"Ican'tmakethesuitout, ' 'tknowwhatcoloritisnoworwhetherit' 'mnotevensurenowwhataspadelookslike!MyGo d!"Thefinalreactionwas,ofcourse, , ,sixofBrunerandPostman' ,asubjectwhowasshownaredsixofspadesthoug htthesymbolswerereversed,andasubjectwhow asshownablackfourofheartsdeclaredthatthe spadeswere"turnedthewrongway." ,wordsofBrunerandPostman( ):"Perceptualorgani-zationispowerfullyde terminedbyexpectationsbuiltuponpastcom-m ercewiththeenvironment."Whenpeoplehaveen oughexperiencewithaparticularsituation, # ,youwereaskedtocounthowmanytimesthelette rfappearedinthefollowingsentence:Thesefu nctionalfuseshavebeendevelopedafteryears ofscientificinvestigationofelectricpheno mena, (Block&Yuker,1989).Thecorrectansweris11( includ-ingfourtimesinwhichfappearsinthew ordof).

3 BecauseexperiencedSELECTIVEPERCEPTION17s peakerspronouncethewordofwitha"v"sound,t heyhavemorediffi-cultydetectingtheseoccu rrencesoftheletterfthandoinexperiencedsp eakers,andasa result, ,youaretold,istodrinkavodkaandtonic,wait twentyminutesforthealcoholtoenteryourblo odstream, ,handsyoutheglass, ,afemaleassistantenterstheroom,sitsdown, (1977)conductedthisexperiment,theyfoundt hatsubjectswhothoughttheyhadbeengivenavo dkaandtonicshowedmuchsmallerincreasesinh eartratethansub-jectswhothoughttheyhadbe engiventonicwateralone-regardlessofwheth ersubjectshadactuallyingest~ ; ,StephenSmith,andElisabethWells-Parker(1 989) , "sensationseekers"wholikedtotakerisks,an dothershadbeenidentifiedaslow"sensations eekers."Then,halfanhourafterdrinkingthei rbeverages, ,rightlyorwrongly, , (Jones,1971).18 PERCEPTION ,MEMORY, (TakenfromHastodandCantril,1954.)Thisdif ferenceofopinionledHastorfandCantriltowo nderwhetherDartmouthandPrincetonstudents wereactuallyseeingdifferentgames, ,theyaskedanewgroupofstudentsateachschoo ltowatcha , , ( ),whereasPrincetonstudentssawtheDartmout hteamcommitmorethantwiceasmanyinfraction sasthePrincetonteam( ).

4 Infact,therewassuchadiscrepancyinpercept ionsthatwhenPrincetonsentacopyofthefilmt oseveralDartmouthalum-niforagroupshowing ,oneDartmouthalumnuswhopreviewedthefilmc ouldnotseeanyoftheDartmouthinfractionsan d,inconfusion,sentPrincetonatelegramaski ngfortherestofthefilm!Basedonthesediffer encesinperception,HastorfandCantril(1954 , )concludedthat:"Itseemsclearthatthe'game ' ,DDartmouthinfractionsVl:JIIIP rinceton'" 'U<l)6C<l) '-'-'0'""'<l) :::l3'"<l)b!Jto'""'2<l); ::IntheseexperimentsandtheexperimentofBr unerandPostman,people' "cognitive" ; ,desires,andemotionalattachmentsareknown as"motivational" ,1951,theDartmouthandPrincetonfootballte amswentheadtoheadinPrincetonUniversity' , 'sstarplayer,whohadjustappearedonthecove rofTimemagazine, , , ,fourdaysafterthegame,awriterfortheDaily Princetonian(Princeton'sstu-dentnewspape r)declared:"Thisobserverhasneverseenquit esuchadisgustingexhibitionofso-called'sp ort.

5 'Bothteamswereguiltybuttheblamemustbelai dprimarilyonDartmouth' ,obvi-ouslythebetterteam,hadnoreasontoro ughupDartmouth."Onthesameday,theDartmout h( dartmouth 'sundergraduatenewspaper)char gedthatPrinceton'scoachhadinstilleda"see -what-they-did-go-get-themattitude" , (asocialpsychologistthenatDartmouth)andH adleyCantril(aPrincetonsurveyresearcher) .Capital-izingonthecontroversy,Hastorfan dCantril(1954) ,amongothers:"Fromwhatyousawinthegameort hemovies,orfromwhatyouhaveread,whichteam doyoufeelstartedtheroughplay?"Notsurpris ingly, ,53percentassertedthatbothsidesstartedit , ,86percentofthePrincetonstudentsfeltthat Dartmouthhadstart-edit, ,MEMORY,ANDCONTEXT differentpeoplehavedifferent'attitudes'c oncerningthesame'thing.'Forthe'thing'sim plyisnotthesamefordifferentpeoplewhether the'thing'isafootballgame,apresidentialc andidate,Communism,orspinach."In1981,Joh nLoyandDonaldAndrewscarefullyreplicatedH astorfandCantril'sstudy, ,RobertVallone,LeeRoss,andMarkLepper(198 5) ,Ross,andLeppercalledthisphenomenonthe"h ostilemediaeffect," ,theyasked160registeredvoterstoindicatew hethermediacoverageofthecandidateshadbee nbiased,andifso, ,andinrougWy90per-centofthesecases, ,Vallone,Ross,andLepper(1985)conductedas econdstudyinwhich68"pro-Israeli"colleges tudents,27"pro-Arab"students,and49"gener allymixed"or"neutral"studentswatchedthes amesetoftelevisednewssegmentscoveringthe tragicBeirutmassacre(in1982,a seriesofArab-Israeliconflictshadresulted inthemassacreofArabciviliansintherefugee campsatSabraandChatilla,Lebanon).

6 ,Vallone,Ross, ,pro-Israelistudentsthoughtthesegmentswe rebiasedagainstIsrael, ,pro-Arabstudentsfeltthatthenewsprograms hadexcusedIsrael"whentheywouldhaveblamed someothercountry,"whereaspro-Israelistud entsfelttheprogramsblamedIsrael"whenthey wouldhaveexcusedsomeothercountry."Asinth ecaseoftheDartmouth-Princetongame,Vallon e,Ross,andLepperfoundthatthesedisagreeme ntswerenotsimplydifferencesofopinion; , , ,ontheotherhand, ,pro-Israelistu-dentsthoughtthatmostneut ralviewerswouldbecomemorenegativetowardI sraelasaresultofwatchingthenewsclips, ,Ross, ,arbitration, ,whenpeoplebecomecommittedtoaparticularc auseoracourseofaction, ,bytheirverynature, ' ,beforemakitiganiniportantjudgmentordeci sion,itoftenpaystopauseandaska fewkeyquestions:AmImotivatedtoseethingsa cer-tainway?WhatexpectationsdidIbringint othesituation?WouldIseethingsdifferently withouttheseexpectationsandmotives?HaveI con-sultedwithotherswhodon'tsharemyexpec tationsandmotives?

7 Byaskingsuchquestions,decisionmakerscane xposemanyofthecogni-tiveandmotivationalf actorsthatleadtobiasesinperception.

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