The Free High School Science Texts: Textbooks for High ...

1 FHSST AuthorsThe free high School Science texts : Textbooks for high School StudentsStudying the SciencesChemistryGrades 10 - 12 Version 0 November 9, 2008iiCopyright 2007 free high School Science texts Permissionisgranted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under theterms of the GNU free Documentation License, Version or any later versionpublished by the free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover texts , and no Back-Cover texts . A copy of the license isincluded in thesection entitled GNU free Documentation License .STOP!!!!Did you notice theFREEDOMSwe ve granted you?Our copyright license isdifferent!It grants freedomsrather than just imposing restrictions like all those othertextbooks you probably own or use. We know people copy Textbooks illegally but we would LOVE it if you copiedour s - go ahead copy to your hearts content,legally!

2 Publishers revenue is generated by controlling the market, we don t want anymoney, go ahead, distribute our books far and wide - we DARE you! Ever wanted to change your textbook ? Of course you have! Go ahead, changeours, make your own version, get your friends together, rip it apart and putit back together the way you like it. That s what we really want! Copy, modify, adapt, enhance, share, critique, adore, and contextualise. Doit all, do it with your colleagues, your friends, or alone butget involved!Together we can overcome the challenges our complex and diverse countrypresents. So what is the catch? The only thing you can t do is take this book, makea few changes and then tell others that they can t do the same with yourchanges.

3 It s share and share-alike and we know you ll agreethat is only fair. These books were written by volunteers who want to help support education,who want the facts to be freely available for teachers to copy, adapt andre-use. Thousands of hours went into making them and they area gift toeveryone in the education Core TeamMark Horner ; Samuel Halliday ; Sarah Blyth ; Rory Adams ; Spencer WheatonFHSST EditorsJaynie Padayachee ; Joanne Boulle ; Diana Mulcahy ; Annette Nell ; Ren e Toerien ; DonovanWhitfieldFHSST ContributorsRory Adams ; Prashant Arora ; Richard Baxter ; Dr. Sarah Blyth; Sebastian Bodenstein ;Graeme Broster ; Richard Case ; Brett Cocks ; Tim Crombie ; Dabrowski ; LauraDaniels ; Sean Dobbs ; Fernando Durrell ; Dr. Dan Dwyer ; Fransvan Eeden ; GiovanniFranzoni ; Ingrid von Glehn ; Tamara von Glehn ; Lindsay Glesener ; Dr.

4 Vanessa Godfrey ; Gonzalez ; Hemant Gopal ; Umeshree Govender ; Heather Gray ; Lynn Greeff ; Dr. TomGutierrez ; Brooke Haag ; Kate Hadley ; Dr. Sam Halliday ; Asheena Hanuman ; Neil Hart ;Nicholas Hatcher ; Dr. Mark Horner ; Robert Hovden ; Mfandaidza Hove ; Jennifer Hsieh ;Clare Johnson ; Luke Jordan ; Tana Joseph ; Dr. Jennifer Klay ;Lara Kruger ; Sihle Kubheka ;Andrew Kubik ; Dr. Marco van Leeuwen ; Dr. Anton Machacek ; Maheshwari ;Kosma von Maltitz ; Nicole Masureik ; John Mathew ; JoEllen McBride ; Nikolai Meures ;Riana Meyer ; Jenny Miller ; Abdul Mirza ; Asogan Moodaly ; Jothi Moodley ; Nolene Naidu ;Tyrone Negus ; Thomas O Donnell ; Dr. Markus Oldenburg ; Dr. Jaynie Padayachee ;Nicolette Pekeur ; Sirika Pillay ; Jacques Plaut ; Andrea Prinsloo ; Joseph Raimondo ; SanyaRajani ; Prof. Sergey Rakityansky ; Alastair Ramlakan ; Razvan Remsing ; Max Richter ; SeanRiddle ; Evan Robinson ; Dr.

5 Andrew Rose ; Bianca Ruddy ; KatieRussell ; Duncan Scott ;Helen Seals ; Ian Sherratt ; Roger Sieloff ; Bradley Smith ; Greg Solomon ; Mike Stringer ;Shen Tian ; Robert Torregrosa ; Jimmy Tseng ; Helen Waugh ; Webber ; MichelleWen ; Dr. Alexander Wetzler ; Dr. Spencer Wheaton ; Vivian White ; Dr. Gerald Wigger ;Harry Wiggins ; Wendy Williams ; Julie Wilson ; Andrew Wood ; Emma Wormauld ; SahalYacoob ; Jean YoussefContributors and editors have made a sincere effort to produce an accurate and useful you have suggestions, find mistakes or be prepared to donate material for inclusion,please don t hesitate to contact us. We intend to work with all who are willing to help makethis a continuously evolving resource! Introduction1II Matter and Materials31 Classification of Matter - Grade Mixtures .. Heterogeneous mixtures.

6 Homogeneous mixtures .. Separating mixtures .. Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds .. Elements .. Compounds .. Giving names and formulae to substances .. Metals, Semi-metals and Non-metals .. Metals .. Non-metals .. Semi-metals .. Electrical conductors, semi-conductors and insulators .. Thermal Conductors and Insulators .. Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials .. Summary .. 182 What are the objects around us made of? - Grade Introduction: The atom as the building block of matter .. Molecules .. Representing molecules .. Intramolecular and intermolecular forces .. The Kinetic Theory of Matter .. The Properties of Matter .. Summary .. 313 The Atom - Grade Models of the Atom .. The Plum Pudding Model .. Rutherford s model of the atom.

7 The Bohr Model .. How big is an atom? .. How heavy is an atom? .. How big is an atom? .. Atomic structure .. The Electron .. The Nucleus .. Atomic number and atomic mass number .. Isotopes .. What is an isotope? .. Relative atomic mass .. Energy quantisation and electron configuration .. The energy of electrons .. Energy quantisation and line emission spectra .. Electron configuration .. Core and valence electrons .. The importance of understanding electron configuration .. Ionisation Energy and the Periodic Table .. Ions .. Ionisation Energy .. The Arrangement of Atoms in the Periodic Table .. Groups in the periodic table .. Periods in the periodic table .. Summary .. 594 Atomic Combinations - Grade Why do atoms bond?

8 Energy and bonding .. What happens when atoms bond? .. Covalent Bonding .. The nature of the covalent bond .. Lewis notation and molecular structure .. Electronegativity .. Non-polar and polar covalent bonds .. Polar molecules .. Ionic Bonding .. The nature of the ionic bond .. The crystal lattice structure of ionic compounds .. Properties of Ionic Compounds .. Metallic bonds .. The nature of the metallic bond .. The properties of metals .. Writing chemical formulae .. The formulae of covalent compounds .. The formulae of ionic compounds .. The Shape of Molecules .. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory .. Determining the shape of a molecule .. Oxidation numbers .. Summary .. 885 Intermolecular Forces - Grade Types of Intermolecular Forces.

9 Understanding intermolecular forces .. Intermolecular forces in liquids .. Summary .. 976 Solutions and solubility - Grade Types of solutions .. Forces and solutions .. Solubility .. Summary .. 1067 Atomic Nuclei - Grade Nuclear structure and stability .. The Discovery of Radiation .. Radioactivity and Types of Radiation .. Alpha ( ) particles and alpha decay .. Beta ( ) particles and beta decay .. Gamma ( ) rays and gamma decay .. Sources of radiation .. Natural background radiation .. Man-made sources of radiation .. The half-life of an element .. The Dangers of Radiation .. The Uses of Radiation .. Nuclear Fission .. The Atomic bomb - an abuse of nuclear fission .. Nuclear power - harnessing energy .. Nuclear Fusion.

10 Nucleosynthesis .. Age of Nucleosynthesis (225 s -103s) .. Age of Ions (103s -1013s) .. Age of Atoms (1013s -1015s) .. Age of Stars and Galaxies (the universe today) .. Summary .. 122viiCONTENTSCONTENTS8 Thermal Properties and Ideal Gases - Grade A review of the kinetic theory of matter .. Boyle s Law: Pressure and volume of an enclosed gas .. Charles s Law: Volume and Temperature of an enclosed gas.. The relationship between temperature and pressure .. The general gas equation .. The ideal gas equation .. Molar volume of gases .. Ideal gases and non-ideal gas behaviour .. Summary .. 1479 Organic Molecules - Grade What is organic chemistry? .. Sources of carbon .. Unique properties of carbon .. Representing organic compounds .. Molecular formula.