Using Self-Determination Theory to Explain Sport ...

1 The Spanish Journal of Psychology Copyright 2010 by The Spanish Journal of Psychology 2010, Vol. 13 No. 2, 677-684 ISSN 1138-7416. Using Self-Determination Theory to Explain Sport Persistence and Dropout in Adolescent athletes Tom s Garc a Calvo , Eduardo Cervell , Ruth Jim nez , Dami n Iglesias , and Juan Antonio Moreno Murcia . 1. Universidad de Extremadura (Spain). 2. Universidad Miguel Hern ndez de Elche (Spain). Motivational characteristics are influential in shaping adolescents' desire to persist in Sport or to discontinue their Sport participation. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) was utilized as the theoretical framework for this study. This Theory examines whether sustained participatory involvement, defined as continued participation in the Sport through the next year, was influenced by individuals' self-determined motivation and by the fulfillment of the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

2 Four hundred ninety two soccer players between the ages of 13 and 17 years comprised the sample. Results indicated Sport dropout was explained by higher levels of amotivation, external regulation, and introjected regulation and by lower satisfaction of relatedness and autonomy needs. The findings of this study contribute to the knowledge base on Sport dropout as they supported many of Self-Determination Theory . Keywords: motivation, autonomy, relatedness, competence, dropout, Sport . Los aspectos motivacionales poseen una gran importancia sobre la persistencia o el abandono de la pr ctica deportiva en los adolescentes. En este estudio, partiendo de la teor a de la autodeterminaci n (Deci y Ryan, 2000), se trat de comprobar c mo incid an en la persistencia o el abandono los diferentes tipos de motivaci n y las necesidades psicol gicas b sicas de autonom a, competencia y relaciones sociales. En el estudio participaron 492 futbolistas, con edades comprendidas entre los 13 y 19 a os.

3 Los resultados demuestran que el abandono es explicado por altos niveles de desmotivaci n, motivaci n externa e introyectada, y bajos niveles de satisfacci n con la autonom a y las relaciones sociales. Estos hallazgos pueden contribuir a conocer mejor el abandono deportivo y minimizarlo a partir de las propuestas de la teor a de autodeterminaci n. Palabras clave: motivaci n, autonom a, relaciones, competencia, abandono, deporte. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tom s Garc a Calvo. Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte. Universidad de Extremadura. Avenida de la Universidad s/n. 10071 C ceres. (Spain). E-mail: 677. 678 GARC A CALVO, CERVELL , JIM NEZ, IGLESIAS, AND MORENO MURCIA. Numerous studies have attempted to Explain Sport most complete form of internalization in extrinsically persistence and dropout in relation to participants' motivated behavior is known as integrated regulation.

4 Underlying psychological characteristics ( , Otis, Individuals who have integrated regulation are motivated Grouzet, & Pelletier, 2005; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, to engage in activities because their involvement in such 1997). Self-Determination Theory is a highly appropriate tasks provides harmony or coherence with other aspects of conceptual framework from which to study Sport persistence their values and their identity (Deci & Ryan, 2002). This and dropout. The Theory has been widely utilized in type of motivation not only involves identifying with understanding motivational outcomes in other achievement the importance of the activity but also with the desire to contexts such as educational and work settings. integrate this sense of identification with other aspects Self-Determination Theory distinguishes among three of the self. Vallerand (1997) demonstrated that this type types of behavioral regulation that are associated with of regulation does not typically appear until people are varying degrees of self-determined motivation.

5 One form sufficiently mature, which can complicate measurement of motivation is intrinsic motivation that refers to those issues with young people. circumstances in which individuals freely engage in A third category of motivation is known as amotivation. activities that they find to be interesting and enjoyable and Amotivation constitutes a psychological state in which which provide the opportunity for learning. People who are people lack either a sense of efficacy or a sense of control intrinsically motivated are engaged in specific activities for with respect to attaining a desired outcome. In other words, their own sake and for the pleasure, fun, and satisfaction they are not able to regulate themselves with respect to their inherent in their participation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, behavior (Ntoumanis, Pensgaard, Martin, & Pipe, 2004). In 1985). In this regard, involvement is characterized by an this circumstance, the individual does not feel in control internal locus of causality and individuals consider their and the locus of control is external (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

6 Actions to be self-determined and volitional. Vallerand and Self-Determination Theory proposes that humans have Rousseau (2001) maintained that there are three types of three fundamental needs that must be satisfied in the social intrinsic motivation in relation to Sport involvement that context. The first need is to feel autonomous in performing correspond to the motivation for stimulating experiences, an activity. Autonomy involves being volitional and acting to gain knowledge, and to accomplish things. in such a way as to represent one's integrated sense of A second type of motivation is extrinsic motivation in self (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The second need is to perceive which individuals engage in activities because they value relatedness with others in the community of involvement. the associated outcomes. Such outcomes could include A third fundamental need is to perceive competence in extrinsic rewards, and public recognition and praise.

7 Relation to the activity. Competence is widely regarded as Extrinsic motivation itself lies on a continuum that is a fundamental to the expression of motivation in the Sport reflection of the internalization process that varies from context (Duda, 2005; Reinboth & Duda, 2006). Research the more self-determined to the less self-determined. supports the view that individuals who experience higher These expressions all involve initially external forms of levels of satisfaction of the three fundamental needs regulation (Chirkov, Kim, Ryan, & Kaplan, 2003). In each express more self-determined forms of regulation (Deci &. circumstance, people act in such a way so as to attain a Ryan, 2000). desired outcome, such as a tangible reward or to avoid a Previous research suggests that Self-Determination Theory potential punishment. is a very applicable framework for the study of persistence On the continuum of extrinsic motivation, external and dropout in Sport and exercise contexts (Frederick- regulation is the least self-determined form of motivation Recascino & Ryan, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Vallerand because externally regulated behavior is motivated by & Rousseau, 2000).

8 In their study of 281 Australian rewards and punishments and driven by feelings of the need gymnasts, Ryan, Hohensee, Cooley, and Jones (2002). to comply. Introjected regulation is somewhat more self- found that individuals who dropped out of gymnastics were determined in that this expression of extrinsic motivation more likely to have had extrinsic reasons for participation depends upon self-control and the individual's goal is to in the first place whereas those who continued with the avoid negative feelings such as guilt and anxiety, as well Sport of gymnastics tended to have initially intrinsic as to experience positive ego-related feelings such as pride motives. Mullan and Markland (1997) found that those (Ryan & Deci, 2000). With introjected regulation, the individuals who reported that they exercised infrequently formerly external source of motivation is internalized and had significantly lower levels of intrinsic motivation and is reinforced through internal pressures such as anxiety identified regulation to exercise than did those individuals or emotions and the person feels that they engage in a who indicated that they exercise regularly but for less than behavior because they must or have to (Ntoumanis, six consecutive months or those who exercised regularly 2005).

9 Identified regulation occupies the next place on the for longer than six consecutive months. continuum and motivation centers of feelings of personal One of the first studies to utilize Self-Determination importance and the value of engaging in the activity. The Theory for the understanding of persistence and withdrawal Sport DROPOUT IN ADOLESCENTS 679. behavior in an achievement context was conducted by regulation and amotivation. No differences in introjected Vallerand and Bissonnette (1992). These researchers regulation were found between the groups. assessed the academic motivation of 1042 Canadian More recently, Ntoumanis (2005) examined whether college students to determine the extent to which different contextual and personal motivational variables could types of motivation influenced the students' persistence or predict student cognitive and affective experiences in withdrawal from school.

10 Results indicated that the dropouts school physical education (PE) as well as participation in had significantly lower levels of identified, integrated, and optional PE during the subsequent school year. The sample intrinsic regulation than did those who remained in school. for this study was comprised of 302 British students. The In a subsequent study, Vallerand, Fortier and Guay (1997) results indicated that need support provided by PE teachers obtained similar results with high school students was associated with greater student need satisfaction which, and these findings indicated that the more self-determined in turn, predicted self-determined motivation. Furthermore, students had lesser intentions and behaviors to drop out. multivariate analysis of variance indicated that those Frederick-Recascino, Lepes, Rubio, and Shelden (1997) participants who opted for PE (n = 171), compared with conducted two prospective studies to test the hypothesis that those who did not (n = 131), reported more positive intrinsic motivation leads to adherence and persistence in motivational experiences during the previous school year.