A cognitive model for non-linear learning in …

1 British Journal of Educational TechnologyVol 33 No 4 2002449 460 British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, cognitive model for non- linear learning inhypermedia programmesSherry Chen Sherry Y Chen is a Lecturer in the Department of Information Systems and Computing at BrunelUniversity. Her major research interests focus on hypermedia -based learning environments and human-computer interaction. She has published widely in these areas. She is the principle investigator of tworesearch projects: human factors in the design of adaptive hypermedia systems and cognitive approachesto develop search agents.

2 Address for correspondence: Department of Information Systems and ComputingBrunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK. Tel: +44-1895-203397; fax: +44+1895-251686; email: the past decade, hypermedia programmes have gained attraction for thepurposes of teaching and learning . These programmes provide students withfreedom of navigation. On the other hand, students are required to developlearning paths by themselves. Empirical evidence indicates that not all oflearners can benefit from hypermedia learning . In particular, they have problemsto deal with non- linear learning . Research into individual differences suggestscognitive styles have significant effects on student learning in hypermediaprogrammes.

3 In this study, a cognitive model is presented to illustrate howstudents with different cognitive styles react to non- linear learning within hyper-media programmes by analysing the findings of previous studies. Implicationsfor the design of adaptive hypermedia learning programmes are also use of hypermedia as a learning medium has been attracting much research in thefield of educational technology. The basic rationale behind hypermedia is that informa-tion can be presented in a non- linear format. Learners can make their ways throughsuch an information-rich and highly interconnected programme in their own self-directed manner, instead of having to follow passively some form of pre-defined linearaccess (Farrell and Moore, 2000).

4 In other words, the development of hypermedia pro-grammes provides learners with many opportunities to explore and discover accordingto their own individual needs. However, the freedom offered by hypermedia learning programmes may come at a price because flexibility increases complexity (Ellis and Kurniawan, 2000). There areproblems that are specific to the organisation of hypermedia . Some learners who are10_Chen 5/8/2002 1:09 pm Page 449uncertain of how to deal with non- linear learning programs may meet disorientationproblems, so their learning achievement may be disrupted to better outcomes. There-fore, it is necessary to see how different learners perceive the features of hypermedialearning.

5 Empirical evaluation of learners individual differences become paramountbecause such evaluation can provide concrete prescriptions for developing student-centred programmes that can match with the particular needs of each the past decade, many studies have shown evidence of individual differences andtheir significance in hypermedia learning , ranging from gender differences (Leong andHawamdeh, 1999), system experience (Reed and Oughton, 1997), to cognitive styles(Kim, 2001). Among these differences, cognitive styles are especially related to themanner in which information is acquired and processed. Ford and Ford (1993) foundthat when given considerable freedom and lack of teacher direction in the way they wentabout learning ; the students displayed distinct learning strategies that are remarkablysimilar to cognitive styles.

6 Therefore, exploration of the relationships between hypermedia s non- linear featuresand individuals cognitive styles is needed if designers would like fully to utilise thefeatures of such applications to benefit individual learners. It also becomes essential tobuild a robust model to show the needs of students with different cognitive styles withinhypermedia learning programmes. In this vein, the study presented in this paper aimsto present a cognitive model that illustrates the effects of cognitive styles on studentlearning in hypermedia programmes by using the evidence of previous research as abase. In particular, the evidence will focus on how different cognitive style groups reactto non- linear interaction, which is the main feature of hypermedia programmes.

7 Inaddition, this study proposes to apply adaptive hypermedia techniques to support FieldDependent learners, who meet more problems in non- linear navigation. cognitive stylesCognitive style refers to an individual s preferred and habitual approach to organisingand representing information (Riding and Rayner, 1998). Within the area of cognitivestyles, Field Dependence versus Field Independence has emerged as one of the mostwidely studied dimensions with the broadest application to problems of education(Messick, 1976; Witkin and Goodenough, 1977), because it reflects how well a learneris able to restructure information based on the use of salient cues and field arrangement(Weller et al, 1994).The concept of Field Dependence originated in laboratory studies on perception byWitkin and Asch (1948) and Witkin (1950).

8 Field Dependence describes the degree towhich a learner s perception or comprehension of information is affected by the sur-rounding perceptual or contextual field, that is, the extent to which the organizationof the prevailing field dominates perception of any of its parts (Witkin et al, 1971).The distinction between Field Dependent and Field Independent individuals is similarto that differentiating Holists and Serialist (eg, Jonassen and Grabowski, 1993; Ridingand Cheema, 1991). Field Dependent individuals typically see the global picture, ignore450 British Journal of Educational TechnologyVol 33 No 4 2002 British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 5/8/2002 1:09 pm Page 450the details, and approach a task more holistically.

9 Field Independent individuals tend todiscern figures as being discrete from their background, to focus on details, and to bemore serialistic in their approach to learning . It seems that Field Dependence is bi-polar,value neutral, consistent across domains, and stable over time (Goodenough, 1976;Messick, 1976; Witkin et al, 1977; Witkin and Goodenough, 1981). Their differentcharacteristics Dependence: the individuals are considered to have a more social orientationthan Field Independent persons since they are more likely to make use of externallydeveloped social frameworks. They tend to seek out external referents for processingand structuring their information, are better at learning material with human con-tent, are more readily influenced by the opinions of others, and are affected by theapproval or disapproval of authority figures (Witkin et al, 1977).

10 Independence: the individuals tend to exhibit more individualistic behaviourssince they are not in need of external referents to aide in the processing of informa-tion. They are more capable of developing their own internal referents and restructur-ing their knowledge, are better at learning impersonal abstract material, are not easilyinfluenced by others, and are not overly affected by the approval or disapproval ofsuperiors (Witkin et al, 1977).In the past ten years, a great number of studies have examined the influence of FieldDependence on hypermedia learning . Such research includes learning in the areas ofartificial intelligence (Chen and Ford, 1998), HTML Authoring (Ford and Chen, 2000),information skills (Wood, Ford, Miller, Sobczyk and Duffin, 1996), and development ofconcept map (Oughton and Reed, 1999).