FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERSS ixth EditionV. RAJARAMAN Honorary ProfessorSupercomputer Education and Research CentreIndian institute of ScienceBangaloreNEEHARIKA ADABALAC hief ArchitectCybULab Private LimitedBangaloreDelhi-1100922015 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS , Sixth EditionV. Rajaraman and Neeharika Adabala 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the export rights of this book are vested solely with the Printing (Sixth Edition) .. January, 2015 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited, New memory of my uncle Dr.

2 Viswanathan and my aunt Srimati Sitalakshmi V. RajaramanContentsPreface xiii1. Computer Basics .. Algorithms Simple Model of a Computer Characteristics of COMPUTERS Problem Solving Using COMPUTERS Flowchart Program Working of a Computer Stored Program Concept Hardware and Software 12 Summary 13 Review Questions 132. Data Representation .. Representation of Characters in COMPUTERS Representation of Integers Representation of Fractions Hexadecimal Representation of Numbers Decimal to Binary Conversion Error Detecting Codes 27 Summary 28 Review Questions 293. Input/Output Units.

3 Traditional Computer Input/Output Units Keyboard 32vvi Display Unit Computer Mouse Other Input Technologies Touch Pad Touch Screen Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR) Flatbed Scanner Optical Character Recognizer Bar Code Computer Output Devices Flat Panel Display Technology E-ink Display Printers Inkjet Printers Laser Printers Dot Matrix Printers Line Printers Plotters Choosing a Printer 49 Summary 50 Review Questions 504. Computer Memory .. Memory Cell Memory Organization Read Only Memory Flash Memory Serial Access Memory Physical Devices Used to Construct Memories Semiconductor Flip-flop Magnetic Surface Recording Magnetic Hard Disk Solid State Disks Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CDROM) Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory CDROM-R (Recordable CDROM or Write Once CDROM WOROM) Blu-ray Disc Magnetic Tape Drive Memory Hierarchy 76 Summary 78 Review Questions 79 Contents vii5.

4 Processor .. Structure of Instructions Description of a Processor Machine Language Program Algorithm to Simulate the Hypothetical Computer Enhancing Hypcom 95 Summary 101 Review Questions 1026. Binary Arithmetic .. Binary Addition Binary Subtraction Signed Numbers Two s Complement Representation of Numbers Addition/Subtraction of Numbers in 2 s Complement Notation Binary Multiplication Binary Division Floating Point Representation of Numbers Arithmetic Operations with Normalized Floating Point Numbers Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division 118 Summary 119 Review Questions 1207.

5 Logic Circuits .. Introduction Switching Circuits AND/OR Operations NOT Operation Boolean Functions Postulates Duality Principle Theorems Precedence of Operators Venn Diagram Truth Table Canonical Forms for Boolean Functions Logic Circuits Parallel and Serial Adders Physical Devices Used to Construct Gates 136viii Transistors Integrated Circuits 142 Summary 145 Review Questions 1468. Computer Architecture .. Interconnection of Units Processor to Memory Communication I/O Devices to Processor Communication Interrupt Structures Bus Architecture of Personal COMPUTERS Multiprogramming 162 Summary 163 Review Questions 1659.

6 Programming Languages .. Why Programming Language? Assembly Language Executing Assembly Language Program Higher Level Programming Languages Compiling A High Level Language Program Tools to Build Compilers Some High Level Languages Conclusions 187 Summary 188 Review Questions 18910. Operating Systems .. Why Do We Need an Operating System? Batch Operating System Multiprogramming Operating System Time Sharing Operating System On-line and Real-Time Systems Other Facilities Provided by Operating Systems Personal Computer Operating System UNIX Operating System UNIX System Layers Microkernel-based Operating System Windows XP Operating System Windows 7 214 Summary 215 Review Questions 216 Contents ix11.

7 Microcomputers .. Ideal Microcomputer Actual Microcomputer CPU Data Bus Address Bus Control Bus Memory Systems for Microcomputers Minimum Microcomputer Configuration Interrupts Parallel to Serial and Serial to Parallel Conversion Direct Memory Access Evolution of Microcomputers Reduced Instruction Set COMPUTERS Special Purpose Microprocessors Digital Signal Processors Microcontrollers Special Purpose Microcomputer Software Special Purpose Applications of Microcomputers Microcomputer as a Furnace Input Feed Controller Other Applications Smart Cards Memory Cards Microprocessor-based

8 Smart Cards Radio Frequency Identification 243 Summary 244 Review Questions 24612. Computer Generations and Classification .. First Generation of COMPUTERS second Generation Third Generation Fourth Generation First Decade (1976 1985) second Phase (1986 2000) Fifth Generation Moore s Law Classification of COMPUTERS Distributed Computer System Parallel COMPUTERS 260 Summary 261 Review Questions 262x Contents13. Computer Networks .. Need for Computer Communication Networks Communication Protocols Local Area Networks Ethernet Local Area Network Bus Topology Ethernet Using Star Topology Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switches Using Public Switched Telephone Network to Connect COMPUTERS Interconnecting Networks IP Address and Datagram Operation of TCP/IP Packet Switching with TCP/IP Internet and Intranet Internet and the World Wide Web Internet Security Extranets and Virtual Private Networks The Future of Internet Technology 285 Summary 286 Review Questions 28914.

9 Voice and Data Communications .. Characteristics of Communication Channels Allocation of Communication Channel Space Division Multiplexing Frequency Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing Physical Communication Media Bounded Media Unbounded Media Public Switched Telephone Networks Digital Communication on the Local Loop with Modems Half Duplex and Full Duplex Transmission Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines Cable Modems Multiplexing Techniques in Wireless Communication Modulation Methods Used in Wireless Communication Cellular Communication Systems Architecture of GSM Cellular Mobile

10 Phone System Basics of Frequency management in GSM Other Services Available in GSM Basics of Spread Spectrum Technology Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 324 Contents Code Division Multiple Access Telephone System Wireless LAN Personal Area Network Bluetooth WiMAX Mobile Communication Among Portable COMPUTERS 329 Summary 330 Review Questions 33315. Advanced Input/Output Interfaces .. Graphical User Interface Vector Graphics Raster Graphics Accelerated Graphics with GPU Rendering Pipeline Programmable Rendering Pipeline Stereo Display Units Other Visual Displays Head Mounted Displays 3D Projection Systems Input Devices for Interaction Accelerometers Gesture Recognition Digital Cameras with Computer Vision Technologies Speech and Audio Interface Tactile Interfaces Haptic Technology Other Emerging Technologies 350 Summary 351 Review Questions 35316.