5 Human development issues and policies

1 5 Human development issues and policies This chapter looks at the four main family sizethat receives most views, and its implications for areas of Human development attention. development strategy. education, health, nutrition and A decade or two ago, there was Recent progress fertilityand at the links between a widespread view that trained them. In each, it considers the people were the key to develop- The major educational progress causes and effects of poverty and ment. Universal literacy was a of the past two decades reflects various ways of breaking its grip political objective in many coun- heavy investment by developing on the poor and their children. tries, but money spent on primary countries. Their total public Ten years ago this chapter would schooling was often regarded as expenditure on education rose in have been written very different- diverted from activities that would real terms (in 1976 dollars) from ly.

2 In certain areas thinking has have contributed more to economic about $9 billion in 1960 ( per- changed substantiallyfor instance, growth. Planners favored the kinds cent of their collective GNP) to about the nature of malnutrition of secondary and higher education $38 billion in 1976 ( percent of and its causes. Good progress has that directly met the "manpower GNP). Costs vary widely by been made in unraveling some requirements" of the modern regionand by type of education complex and highly controversial sector. People who worked with (see Table ). The potential for issuesfor example, the respec- their hands were thought not continued enrollment growth at tive roles of family planning and to have much need of formal different levels will, of course, be social development in reducing education. strongly affected by these costs. fertility. And in all areas, research Over the past decade, views But school attendance in some and practical experience have im- have changed substantially.

3 Ade- parts of the world remains low, proved understanding of the na- quate provision of secondary and especially among the poor, in rural ture of poverty and what can be higher education and training areas and by girls (see Figure done about it. remains an important priority. But and Table ). This is not simply the value of general education at because schools are unavailable Education the primary level is now more not everyone who has an oppor- widely recognized. This section tunity for education accepts it. Every individual is born with a discusses more of the evidence Among those who do enroll, more- collection of abilities and talents. that lies behind this change in over, in developing countries on Education, in its many forms, has the potential to help fulfill and apply them. Table Public expenditures on elementary and higher education In some societies the economic per student, 1976.

4 Function of schooling is regarded Higher (post- as minorsince the cultivation of secondary) Elementary Ratio of higher to Region education education elementary education the mind and the spirit, curiosity, contemplation and reasoning have Sub-Saharan Africa 3,819 38 South Asia 117 13 more than economic purposes and East Asia 471 54 justifications. But in the context Middle East and North Africa 3,106 181 of this Report, it is the role of edu- Latin America and Caribbean 733 91 Industrialized 2,278 1,157 cation in overcoming poverty USSR and Eastern Europe 957 539 increasing incomes, improving Note: Figures shown are averages (weighted by enrollment) of costs (in 1976 dollars) in the health and nutrition, reducing countries in each region for which data were available. 46. average 40 percent drop out before percent (less than half the national that at most 4 percent completed the fourth year.)

5 In Brazil's poor urban average), nearly two-thirds four years. Even the completion rural Northeast region in 1974, of the students dropped out before statistics conceal the very low despite an enrollment rate of 46 the second year-and it is estimated quality of some of the schooling provided (see pages 52-53). Nonetheless, the very substantial Figure Enrollment ratios, by region, 1960-75. growth in enrollment (Figure ). (percent). is a sign of great educational advance. Middle East and North Africa South Asia East Asia Latin America Sub-Saharan Africa There are several mechanisms 80 through which this has contributed Female (6-11). Male (6-11) Male (6-11) to growth in incomes. 70 Male (6-11). Male (6_Il) Effects of education on earning power Female (6-11). 60. Male (12-17) Schooling imparts specific knowl- Female (6-11). Male (6-11). edge and develops general reasoning 50 - Female (6-11).

6 Male (12-17) skills (its "cognitive" effects); it also induces changes in beliefs and 40. /ZMale (12-17) Male (12-17). Female (12-17) values, and in attitudes toward 30 Female (12-17). Female (12-17) Female (6-11). work and society ("noncognitive". effects). The relative importance Ml (1823) Ml (1217) of these effects is much debated, 20. Female (12-17). M 1 (18 23) M Ic (28 23). Female (12-17). but poorly understood; both are 10 Male (18-23) Female (18-23) extremely important. F m I (18 23) 823) In the cognitive area, developing 0 a generalized capacity for thinking I '60 65 70 75 60 65 70 75 60 65 70 75 60 65 70 75 60 65 70 75. and learning has to be found to be UNESCO. more important than the specific subjects learned. On-the-job training, informal education and Table Primary school enrollment, by income group vocational training all build on (percent) learning abilities acquired earlier.

7 Boys (aged 5-9) Girls (aged 5-9). And although literacy and num- Poorest Richest Poorest Richest eracy deteriorate if left unused, the Country households households households households educational experience still gen- Sri Lanka, 1969-70 erally provides an improved foun- Nepal, 1973-74 dation for subsequent learning. 11 towns Many of the noncognitive effects India: Gujarat of schooling-receptivity to new state, 1972-73 ideas, competitiveness, and will- Rural ingness to accept discipline-are Urban directly relevant to productive India: Maharashtra economic activity. Others-toler- state, 1972-73. ance, self-confidence, social and Rural Urban civic responsibility - are more Both sexes (aged 6-71). personal or political in nature, Poorest Richest but may also affect economic households households performance. Colombia, 1974 Some of the evidence on the Large cities effects of education rests on at- All urban tempts to measure attitudes directly.

8 Rural Studies in several countries have Note: Enrollments are expressed as a percentage of the number in the age group. Poorest shown that "modernity" of outlook and richest refer (in the case of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) to the bottom and top 10 percent of households ranked by expenditure per person, and (in the case of Colombia) to the top toward activities ranging from vot- and bottom 20 percent of households ranked by income per person. ing to family planning, saving and 47. working, is more influenced by the Table Farmer education it would be short-sighted to leave level of the individual's schooling and farmer productivity a large part of the next generation than by any other factor. But there Estimated percentage of farmers illiterate. are also many studies of the direct increase in annual farm output effect of schooling on individual due to four years EMPLOYEES.

9 The second type of productivity and earnings, which Study of primary education study relates the educational levels rather than none are examined here under two heads of individuals to their wages and With complementary inputs'. those relating to the self-employed salaries. If education affects the Brazil (Garibaldi), 1970 and those relating to employees. Brazil (Resende), 1969 capacity to learn, innovate and Brazil (Taquari), 1970 adapt, its effects should be par- Brazil (Vicosa), 1969 THE SELF-EMPLOYED. The hy- Colombia (Chinchina), ticularly important for employees potheses are straightforward: that 1969 doing nonroutine or changing Colombia (Espinal), 1969 tasks. For employees in modern primary education helps people to Kenya, 1971-72 obtain and evaluate information Malaysia, 1973 enterprises, primary education also Nepal (wheat), 1968-69 promotes disciplined work habits about improved techniques and South Korea, 1973 new opportunities, to keep records and responsiveness to further Average (unweighted) and estimate the returns of past training, as well as offering the ad- activities and the risks of future Without complementary inputs vantages of literacy and numeracy.

10 Ones. More generally, primary Brazil (Candelaria), 1970 Studies of the rate of return to Brazil (Conceicao de schooling is a training in how to Castelo), 1969 education for wage earners deal learn, an experience in self- Brazil (Guarani), 1970 mainly with relatively large urban Brazil (Paracatu), 1969 enterprises; but a few have in- discipline and in working for Colombia (Malaga), 1969 longer-term goals. Colombia (Moniquira), cluded small businesses and agri- Most of the empirical evidence 1969 cultural workers. All find that Greece, 1963 comes from agriculture - studies more schooling leads to higher Average (unweighted) comparing the productivity , yields earnings. And when the extra earn- and innovative activity of schooled No information on availability ings resulting from primary educa- of complementary inputs tion are weighed against its costs, and unschooled farmers.