Rare-Earth Elements

1 Rare-Earth ElementsChapter O ofCritical mineral Resources of the United States Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future department of the Geological SurveyProfessional Paper 1802 O8A1A2A3B4B5B6B7B8B11B12B3A4A5A6A7 Aelement names in blue are liquids at room temperatureelement names in red are gases at room temperatureelement names in black are solids at room (98) (209)(210)(222) (223)(226)(265)(268)(271)(270)(277)(276) (281)(280)(285) (145) (227)231238(237)(244)(243)(247)(247)(251 )(252)(257)(258)(259)(262) (289)(288)(284)(293)(294)(294)hydrogenba riumfranciumradiumstrontiumsodiumvanadiu mberylliumlithiummagnesiumpotassiumcalci umrubidiumcesiumheliumboroncarbonnitroge noxygenfluorineneonaluminumsiliconphosph orussulfurchlorineargonscandiumtitaniumc hromiummanganeseironcobaltnickelcopperzi ncgalliumgermaniumarsenicseleniumbromine kryptonyttriumzirconiumniobiummolybdenum technetiumrutheniumrhodiumpalladiumsilve rcadmiumindiumtinantimonytellurium iodinexenonhafniumceriumpraseodymiumneod ymiumpromethiumsamariumeuropium gadoliniumterbium dysprosiumholmiumerbiumthuliumytterbiuml utetiumtantalumtungstenrheniumosmiumirid iumplatinumgoldmercurythalliumleadbismut hpoloniumastatineradonthoriumlanthanumac tiniumprotactinium

2 Uraniumneptuniumplutoniumamericiumcurium berkeliumcaliforniumeinsteiniumfermiumme ndeleviumnobeliumlawrencium rutherfordiumdubniumseaborgiumbohriumhas siummeitneriumdarmstadtiumroentgeniumcop erniciumfleroviumlivermoriumLanthanide Series*Actinide Series**Periodic Table of ElementsModified from Los Alamos National Laboratory Chemistry Division; available at The Mountain Pass Mine, San Bernardino County, California, was the only active producer of Rare-Earth Elements (REEs) in the United States in 2013. The orebody is a tabular carbonatite intrusion and is thought to be the largest REE resource in the United States. Photograph by Bradley S. Van Gosen, Geological ElementsBy Bradley S. Van Gosen, Philip L. Verplanck, Robert R. Seal II, Keith R. Long, and Joseph GambogiChapter O ofCritical mineral Resources of the United States Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future SupplyEdited by Klaus J.

3 Schulz, John H. DeYoung, Jr., Robert R. Seal II, and Dwight C. BradleyProfessional Paper 1802 department of the Geological department of the InteriorRYAN K. ZINKE, Geological SurveyWilliam H. Werkheiser, Acting Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2017 For more information on the USGS the Federal source for science about the earth , its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment visit or call 1 888 ASK an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text.

4 Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright citation:Van Gosen, , Verplanck, , Seal, , II, Long, , and Gambogi, Joseph, 2017, Rare-Earth Elements , chap. O of Schulz, , DeYoung, , Jr., Seal, , II, and Bradley, , eds., Critical mineral resources of the United States Economic and environmental geology and prospects for future supply: Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, p. O1 O31, 2330-7102 (online)iiiContentsAbstract .. and Applications ..O3 Availability of Supply ..O4 Australia ..O4 China .. States ..O5 Conservation, Recycling, and Substitution ..O5 Geology .. Formation in Carbonatite Magmas ..O7 Rare-Earth -Element- mineral Formation in Alkaline Magmas ..O7 Rare-Earth -Element- mineral Formation in Parental Magma Sources.

5 O7 Rare-Earth -Element- mineral Formation Through Hydrothermal Processes ..O7 Aqueous Geochemistry of Rare-Earth Elements ..O7 Mineralogy ..O7 Deposit Types ..O10 Resources and Production ..O17 Identified Resources ..O17 Undiscovered Resources ..O18 Exploration for New Deposits ..O18 Environmental Considerations ..O20 Sources and Fate in the Environment ..O21 Mine Waste Characteristics ..O21 Human Health Concerns ..O22 Ecological Health Concerns ..O22 Carbon and Future Research ..O23 References O1. Graph showing world mine production of Rare-Earth oxides, by country and year, from 1960 to 2012 ..O4 O2. Graph showing radii of the trivalent ions of the Rare-Earth Elements as well as of cerium in the +4 valence state and europium in the +2 valence state.

6 O6 O3. Photograph of the Mountain Pass Mine in San Bernardino County, California, which was the only active producer of Rare-Earth Elements in the United States in 2013 ..O8 O4. World map showing locations of active or recently active Rare-Earth -element mines and ongoing advanced exploration projects ..O9 O5. Chondrite-normalized plot showing the Rare-Earth -element (REE) distribution in six different types of North American REE deposits ..O11 Tables O1. List of the Rare-Earth Elements found in natural deposits the lanthanides plus yttrium ..O2 O2. List of selected Rare-Earth -element-bearing and yttrium-bearing ore minerals ..O10 O3. Active Rare-Earth mines, by deposit type ..O12 O4. Advanced Rare-Earth -element (REE) exploration projects and the reported estimates of their REE resources, by deposit type.

7 O14vConversion FactorsInternational System of Units to Inch/PoundMultiplyByTo obtainLengthangstrom ( ) ( nanometer) ( ) ( nanometer) ( m) [or micron] (mm) (in.)centimeter (cm) (in.)meter (m) (ft) meter (m) (yd) kilometer (km) (mi)Areahectare (ha) kilometer (km2) meter (m2) foot (ft2) square centimeter (cm2) inch (ft2) square kilometer (km2) mile (mi2)Volumemilliliter (mL) , fluid (fl. oz)liter (L) , fluid (fl. oz)liter (L) (qt)liter (L) (gal)cubic meter (m3) (gal) cubic centimeter (cm3) inch (in3) cubic meter (m3) yard (yd3) cubic kilometer (km3) mile (mi3) Massmicrogram ( g) , avoirdupois (oz)milligram (mg) , avoirdupois (oz)gram (g) , avoirdupois (oz)gram (g) , troykilogram (kg) , troykilogram (kg) avoirdupois (lb)ton, metric (t) , short [2,000 lb]ton, metric (t) , long [2,240 lb]Deposit gradegram per metric ton (g/t) per short ton (2,000 lb) (oz/T)Pressuremegapascal (MPa)10bargigapascal (GPa)10,000barDensitygram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) per cubic foot (lb/ft3) milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3) per cubic foot (lb/ft3)Energyjoule (J) (kWh)joule (J) 1018electronvolt (eV)joule (J) (cal)kilojoule (kJ) (kcal)

8 ViInternational System of Units to Inch/Pound ContinuedMultiplyByTo obtainRadioactivitybecquerel (Bq) ( Ci)kilobecquerel (kBq) ( Ci)Electrical resistivityohm meter ( -m) inch ( -in.)ohm-centimeter ( -cm) inch ( -in.)Thermal conductivitywatt per centimeter per degree Celsius (watt/cm C) British thermal unit inch per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit (Btu in/h ft2 F)watt per meter kelvin (W/m-K) British thermal unit inch per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit (Btu in/h ft2 F)Inch/Pound to International System of ( m) [or micron]inch (in.) (cm)inch (in.) (mm)foot (ft) (m)mile (mi) (km)Volumeounce, fluid (fl. oz) (mL)ounce, fluid (fl. oz) (L) Massounce, avoirdupois (oz)28,350,000microgramounce, avoirdupois (oz)28,350milligramounce, avoirdupois (oz) (g) ounce, 348gram (g)ounce, (kg)pound, avoirdupois (lb) (kg) ton, short (2,000 lb) , metric (t) ton, long (2,240 lb) , metric (t) Deposit gradeounce per short ton (2,000 lb) (oz/T) per metric ton (g/t)Energykilowatthour (kWh)3,600,000joule (J)electronvolt (eV) 10 19joule (J)Radioactivitymicrocurie ( Ci)37,000becquerel (Bq)microcurie ( Ci)37kilobecquerel (kBq)Temperature in degrees Celsius ( C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit ( F) as follows: F = ( C) + 32 Temperature in degrees Celsius ( C) may be converted to kelvin (K) as follows.

9 K = C + in degrees Fahrenheit ( F) may be converted to degrees Celsius ( C) as follows: C = ( F 32) / otherwise stated, vertical and horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84). Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical InformationSpecific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius ( S/cm at 25 C).Concentrations of chemical constituents in soils and (or) sediment are given in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), parts per million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb).Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in milligrams per liter (mg/L), micrograms per liter ( g/L), nanogams per liter (ng/L), nanomoles per kilogram (nmol/kg), parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt).

10 Concentrations of suspended particulates in water are given in micrograms per gram ( g/g), milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), or femtograms per gram (fg/g).Concentrations of chemicals in air are given in units of the mass of the chemical (milligrams, micrograms, nanograms, or picograms) per volume of air (cubic meter).Activities for radioactive constituents in air are given in microcuries per milliliter ( Ci/mL).Deposit grades are commonly given in percent, grams per metric ton (g/t) which is equivalent to parts per million (ppm) or troy ounces per short ton (oz/T).Geologic ages are expressed in mega-annum (Ma, million years before present, or 10 6 years ago) or giga-annum (Ga, billion years before present, or 10 9 years ago).For ranges of years, to and (or) the en dash ( ) mean up to and including.