Introductory chemIstry

1 Introductory 112/11/13 1:04 212/11/13 1:04 PMIntroductory chemIstryFifth editionWestmont collegenivaldo J. troBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montr al TorontoDelhi Mexico City S o Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei 312/11/13 1:04 PMEditor in Chief: Adam JaworskiAcquisitions Editor: Chris Hess, of Development: Jennifer HartExecutive Marketing Manager: Jonathan CottrellAssociate Team Lead, Program Management, chemIstry and Geosciences: Jessica MoroProgram Manager: Coleen MorrisonDevelopment Editor: Erin MulliganEditorial Assistant: Caitlin FalcoMarketing Assistant: Nicola HoustonTeam Lead, Project Management, chemIstry and Geosciences: Gina M. CheselkaProject Manager: Beth SweetenProduction Management: codeMantra, LLCC ompositor: codeMantra, LLCI llustrator: Precision GraphicsImage Lead: Maya MelenchukPhoto Researcher: Peter Jardim, PreMedial GlobalText Permissions Manager: Michael FarmerText Permission Researcher: Electronic Publishing Services Design Manager: Mark OngInterior Designer: Wanda Espana, WeeDesignCover Design Manager: Anthony GemmellaroCover Designer: Wanda Espana, WeeDesignOperations Specialist: Christy HallCover Art: Quade PaulCredits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on p.

2 2015, 2011, 2009, 2006, 2003 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as [imprint name and address]. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025. For information regarding permissions, call (847) of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trade-marks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataTro, Nivaldo J.

3 Introductory chemIstry / Nivaldo J. Tro. 5th ed. volumes cm Includes index. ISBN 978-0-321-91029-5 (extended) ISBN 978-0-321-91873-4 (essentials) 1. chemIstry Textbooks. I. Title. 2015 540 dc23 2013035235 ISBN 10: 0-321-91029-X;ISBN 13: 978-0-321-91029-5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 CRK 17 16 15 412/11/13 1:04 PM vTo AnnieAbout the AuthorNivaldo Tro, is a Professor of chemIstry at Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where he has been a facul-ty member since 1990. He received his in chemIstry from Stanford University for work on developing and using optical techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules to and from surfaces in ultra high vacuum. He then went on to the University of California at Berkeley, where he did post doc-toral research on ultrafast reaction dynamics in solution.

4 Since coming to Westmont, Professor Tro has been awarded grants from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, from Research Corporation, and from the National Science Foundation to study the dynamics of various processes occurring in thin ad-layer films adsorbed on dielectric surfaces. He has been honored as Westmont's outstanding teacher of the year three times and has also received the college's outstanding researcher of the year award. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann, and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden. In his leisure time, Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, reading to his children, and being outdoors with his 512/11/13 1:04 PM viBrief ContentsPreface xviii 1 The Chemical World 2 2 Measurement and Problem Solving 12 3 Matter and Energy 56 4 Atoms and Elements 94 5 Molecules and Compounds 128 6 Chemical Composition 166 7 Chemical Reactions 204 8 Quantities in Chemical Reactions 248 9 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table 284 10 Chemical Bonding 324 11 Gases 358 12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces 410 13 Solutions 446 14 Acids and Bases 486 15 Chemical Equilibrium 528 16 Oxidation and Reduction 574 17 Radioactivity and Nuclear chemIstry 610 18 Organic chemIstry 642 19 Biochemistry 696 Appendix: Mathematics Review MR-1 Glossary G-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1 Photo Credits PC-1 Index 612/11/13 1.

5 04 PM viiContentsPreface xviii 1 The Chemical World Soda Pop Fizz Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things All Things Are Made of Atoms and Molecules The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think 6 EvEryday chemIstry Combustion and the Scientific Method A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed 8 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 9 KEy TERMS 10 ExERCISES 10 2 Measurement and Problem Solving Measuring Global Temperatures Scientific Notation: writing Large and Small Numbers Significant Figures: writing Numbers to Reflect Precision 16 Counting Significant Figures 17 Exact Numbers 18 chemIstry in thE mEdia The COBE Satellite and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Our Cosmic Past Significant Figures in Calculations 20 Multiplication and Division 20 Rounding 20 Addition and Subtraction 21 Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division and Addition/Subtraction The Basic Units of Measurement 24 The Base Units 24 Prefix Multipliers 25 Derived Units Problem Solving and Unit Conversion 27 Converting Between Units 27 General Problem-Solving Strategy 29 Problem-Solving Procedure Solving Unit Conversion Problems Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems Units Raised to a Power 33 chemIstry and hEalth Drug Dosage Density 36 Calculating Density 36 Density as a Conversion

6 Factor 37 chemIstry and hEalth Density, Cholesterol, and Heart Disease Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map 39 Problem-Solving Procedure Solving Numerical Problems 40 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 41 KEy TERMS 47 ExERCISES 712/11/13 1:04 PMviii | Contents 3 Matter and Energy In your Room what Is Matter? Classifying Matter According to Its State: Solid, Liquid, and Gas Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures Differences in Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties Changes in Matter: Physical and Chemical Changes 65 Separating Mixtures Through Physical Changes Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter Energy 68 chemIstry in thE EnvironmEnt Getting Energy out of Nothing? 69 Units of Energy Energy and Chemical and Physical Change Temperature: Random Motion of Molecules and Atoms Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity 76 EvEryday chemIstry Coolers, Camping, and the Heat Capacity of Water Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 77 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 81 KEy TERMS 86 ExERCISES 86 4 Atoms and Elements Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon Indivisible: The Atomic Theory 96 EvEryday chemIstry Atoms and Humans The Nuclear Atom The Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 99 EvEryday chemIstry Solid Matter?

7 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 108 Ions and the Periodic Table Isotopes: when the Number of Neutrons varies Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element s Atoms 113 chemIstry in thE EnvironmEnt Radioactive Isotopes at Hanford, Washington 114 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 116 KEy TERMS 119 ExERCISES 119 5 Molecules and Compounds Sugar and Salt Compounds Display Constant Composition Chemical Formulas: How to Represent Compounds 131 Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas 133 Types of Chemical Formulas A Molecular view of Elements and Compounds 135 Atomic Elements 135 Molecular Elements 135 Molecular Compounds 135 Ionic Compounds writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 138 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Only Monoatomic Ions 138 Problem-Solving Procedure writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 812/11/13 1:04 PMContents | ixWriting Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions Nomenclature.

8 naming Compounds naming Ionic Compounds 140 naming binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation 141 naming binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation 142 naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Polyatomic Ion 143 EvEryday chemIstry Polyatomic Ions naming Molecular Compounds naming Acids 146 naming binary Acids 146 naming Oxyacids 147 chemIstry in thE EnvironmEnt acid Rain Nomenclature Summary 148 Ionic Compounds 149 Molecular Compounds 149 Acids Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule or Formula Unit 150 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 151 KEy TERMS 156 ExERCISES 156 6 Chemical Composition How Much Sodium? Counting Nails by the Pound Counting Atoms by the Gram 169 Converting between Moles and Number of Atoms 169 Converting between Grams and Moles of an Element 170 Converting between Grams of an Element and Number of Atoms Counting Molecules by the Gram 174 Converting between Grams and Moles of a Compound 174 Converting between Grams of a Compound and Number of Molecules Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors 177 Converting between Grams of a Compound and Moles of a Constituent Element 178 Converting between Grams of a Compound and Grams of a Constituent Element 179 chemIstry in thE EnvironmEnt Chlorine in Chlorofluorocarbons Mass Percent Composition of Compounds Mass Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula 183 chemIstry and hEalth Fluoridation of Drinking Water Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds 185

9 Calculating an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data 186 Problem-Solving Procedure Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds 188 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 190 KEy TERMS 196 ExERCISES 196 7 Chemical Reactions Grade School volcanoes, Automobiles, and Laundry Detergents Evidence of a Chemical Reaction The Chemical Equation How to write Balanced Chemical Equations 211 Problem-Solving Procedure writing Balanced Chemical Equations 912/11/13 1:04 PMx | Aqueous Solutions and Solubility: Compounds Dissolved in water 214 Solubility Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in Aqueous Solution That Form a Solid 218 Predicting Precipitation Reactions 218 Problem-Solving Procedure writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions writing Chemical Equations for Reactions in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations acid Base and Gas Evolution Reactions 223 acid Base (Neutralization) Reactions 223 Gas Evolution Reactions 224 chemIstry and hEalth Neutralizing Excess Stomach acid Oxidation Reduction Reactions 226 Combustion Reactions Classifying Chemical Reactions 228 Classifying Chemical Reactions by What Atoms Do 229 Classification Flowchart 231 chemIstry in thE EnvironmEnt The Reactions Involved in Ozone Depletion 233 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 233 KEy TERMS 239 ExERCISES 239 8 Quantities in Chemical Reactions Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide Making Pancakes.

10 Relationships between Ingredients Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 253 chemIstry in thE mEdia The Controversy over Oxygenated Fuels More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical yield, and Percent yield Limiting Reactant, Theoretical yield, and Percent yield from Initial Masses of Reactants Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction 264 EvEryday chemIstry Bunsen Burners 265 Sign of Hrxn 265 Stoichiometry of Hrxn 266 CHAPTER IN REvIEw 268 KEy TERMS 272 ExERCISES 273 9 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom Light: Electromagnetic Radiation The Electromagnetic Spectrum 288 chemIstry and hEalth Radiation Treatment for Cancer The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms with Orbitals 294 Baseball Paths and Electron Probability Maps 294 From Orbits to Orbitals Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Con-figurations 295 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals 296 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table The Explanatory Power of the Quantum- Mechanical Model 1012/11/13 1:04 PM