Equivalent-Circuit Cell Models
W is the Warburg impedance. The frequency-dependent Warburg impedance Z W = A W/ p jω models diffusion of lithium ions in the electrodes. The phase contributed to the circuit by this element is 45 , which is most easily observed in a Nyquist plot of a cell’s electrochemical impedance spectrum as a straight line at 45 at low frequency. 0 5 10 ...
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